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Islamic law
Islamic law is a
particularly instructive example of “sacred law”.
Islamic law is a phenomenon so
differ
ent from all
other
forms
of
law,
notwithstanding,
of
course,
a
considerable
and
inevitable
number
of
coincidences
with
one
or
the
other of them as far as
subject matter and positive enactments are
concerned that its study is indispensable in order
to
appreciate adequately the full range
of possible legal phenomena. Even the two other
representatives of sacred law that
are
historically and geographically nearest to it,
Jewish law and Roman Catholic canon law, are
perceptibly different.
Both
Jewish
law
and
canon
law
are
more
uniform
than
Islamic
law.
Though
historically
there
is
a
discernible
break
between Jewish law of the sovereign
state of ancient Israel and of the Diaspora (the
dispersion of Jewish people after the
conquest of Israel), the spirit of the
legal matter in later parts of the Old Testament
is very close to that of the Talmud, one
of the primary codifications of Jewish
law in the Diaspora. Islam, on the other hand,
represented a radical breakaway from
the Arab paganism that preceded it;
Islamic law is the result of an examination, from
a religious angle, of legal subject
matter
that
was
far
from
uniform,
comprising
as
it
did
the
various
components
of
the
laws
of
pre-
Islamic
Arabia
and
numerous legal elements taken over from
the non Arab peoples of the conquered territories.
All this was unified by being
subjected
to the same kind of religious scrutiny, the impact
of which varied greatly, being almost nonexistent
in some fields,
and in others
originating novel institutions. This central
duality of legal subject matter and religious norm
is additional to
the variety of legal
ethical and ritual rules that is typical of sacred
law.
In its relation to the
secular state, Islamic law differed from both
Jewish and canon law. Jewish law was buttressed by
the cohesion of the community,
reinforced by pressure from outside: its rules are
the direct expression of this feeling of
cohesion, tending toward the
accommodation of dissent. Canon and Islamic law,
on the contrary, were dominated by the
dualism
of
religion
and
state
，
where
the
state
was
not,
in
contrast
with
Judaism,
an
alien
power
but
the
political
expression of the
same religion. But the conflict between state and
religion took different forms; in Christianity it
appeared
as the struggle for political
power on the part of a tightly organized
ecclesiastical hierarchy, and canon law was one of
its
political weapons. Islamic law, on
the other hand
，
was never supported by and organized
institution; consequently there
never
developed an overt trial of strength. There merely
existed discordance between application of the
sacred law and
many of the regulations
framed by Islamic states; this antagonism varied
according to place and time. (NO7-1-B-L)
1.
The author
’
s
purpose in comparing Islamic law to Jewish law and
canon law is most probably to:
(A)
contend that
traditional legal subject matter does not play a
large role in Islamic law.
(B)
Support his
argument that Islamic law is a unique kind of
legal phenomenon.
(C)
Emphasize the variety of forms that can
all be considered sacred law.
(D)
Provide an
example of how he believes comparative
institutional study should be undertaken.
(E)
Argue that
geographical and historical proximity does not
necessarily lead to parallel institutional
development.
2.
The passage provides information to
answer which of the following questions?
(A)
Does Islamic
law depend on sources other than Arab legal
principles?
(B)
What secular practices of Islamic
states conflicted with Islamic law?
(C)
Are Jewish
law and canon law the most typical examples of
sacred law?
(D)
Is Jewish law more uniform than canon
law?
(E)
What
characterized Arab law of the pre-Islamic era?
3.
According to the passage, which of the
following statements about sacred law is correct?
(A)
The various
systems of sacred law originated in a limited
geographical area.
(B)
The various systems of sacred law have
had marked influence on one another.
(C)
Systems of
sacred law usually rely on a wide variety of
precedents.
(D)
Systems of sacred law generally contain
prescriptions governing diverse aspects of human
activity.
(E)
Systems of sacred law function most
effectively in communities with relatively small
populations.
4.
It can be inferred from the passage
that the application of Islamic law in Islamic
states has
(A)
Systematically been opposed by groups
who believe it is contrary to their interest
(B)
Suffered
irreparably from the lack of firm institutional
backing
(C)
Frequently been at odds with the legal
activity of government institutions.
(D)
Remain
unaffected by the political forces operating
alongside it.
(E)
Benefited from the fact that it never
experienced a direct confrontation with the state.
5.
Which of the following most accurately
describes the organization of the passage?
(A)
A universal
principle is advanced and then discussed in
relation to a particular historical phenomenon
(B)
A
methodological innovation is suggested and then
examples of its efficacy are provided.
(C)
A traditional
interpretation is questioned and then modified to
include new data.
(D)
A general opinion is expressed and then
supportive illustrations are advanced.
(E)
A
controversial viewpoint is presented and then both
supportive evidence and contradictory evidence are
cited.
6.
The
passage
implies
that
the
relationship
of
Islamic,
Jewish,
and
canon
law
is
correctly
described
by
which
of
the
following statements?
I.
Because each
constitutes an example of sacred law, they
necessarily share some features.
II.
They each
developed in reaction to the interference of
secular political institutions.
III.
The
differences among them result partly from their
differing emphasis on purely ethical rules.
(A)
I only
(B)
III only
(C)
I and II only
(D)
II and III
only
(E)
I, II,
and III
7.
The passage suggests that canon law
differs from Islamic law in that only canon law
(A)
contains
prescriptions that nonsacred legal systems might
regard as properly legal
(B)
concerns itself with the duties of a
person in regard to the community as a whole
(C)
was affected
by the tension of the conflict between religion
and state
(D)
developed in a political environment
that did not challenge its fundamental existence
(E)
played a role
in the direct confrontation between institutions
vying for power
8.
All of the
following statements about the development of
Islamic law are implied in the passage EXCEPT:
(A)
Pre-Islamic
legal principles were incorporated into Islamic
law with widely differing degrees of change.
(B)
Diverse legal
elements were joined together through the
application of a purely religious criterion.
(C)
Although some
of the sources of Islamic law were pagan, its
integrity as a sacred law was not compromised by
their incorporation.
(D)
There was a
fundamental shared characteristic in all pre-
Islamic legal matter taken over by Islamic law.
(E)
Although
Islam emerged among the Arabs, Islamic law was
influenced by ethnically diverse elements.
Nitrogen Fixation
Two
relatively recent independent developments stand
behind the current major research effort on
nitrogen fixation,
the
process
by
which
bacteria symbiotically
render
leguminous
plants
independent of
nitrogen
fertilizer.
The
one
development has been the rapid,
sustained increase in the price of nitrogen
fertilizer. The other development has been the
rapid growth of knowledge of and
technical sophistication in genetic engineering.
Fertilizer prices, largely tied to the price
of
natural
gas,
huge amounts
of
which
go
into
the
manufacture
of
fertilizer,
will
continue
to
represent
an
enormous
and escalating
economic
burden
on
modern
agriculture, spurring
the
search
for
alternatives
to
synthetic fertilizers.
And
genetic engineering is just the sort of
fundamental breakthrough that opens up prospects
of wholly novel alternatives. One
such
novel idea is that of inserting into the
chromosomes of plants discrete genes that are not
a part of the plants' natural
constitution: specifically, the idea of
inserting into nonleguminous plants the genes, if
they can be identified and isolated,
that fit the leguminous plants to be
hosts for nitrogenfixing bacteria. Hence, the
intensified research on legumes.
Nitrogen
fixation
is
a
process
in
which
certain bacteria
use
atmospheric
nitrogen
gas,
which
green
plants
cannot
directly
utilize,
to
produce
ammonia, a
nitrogen
compound
plants
can
use.
It
is
one
of nature's
great
ironies
that
the
availability of nitrogen in the soil
frequently sets an upper limit on plant growth
even though the plants' leaves are bathed
in a sea of nitrogen gas. The
leguminous plants-among them crop plants such as
soybeans, peas, alfalfa, and clover-have
solved
the
nitrogen supply
problem
by
entering
into
a
symbiotic
relationship
with
the
bacterial
genus
Rhizobium;
as
a matter of fact, there
is a specific strain of Rhizobium for each species
of legume. The host plant supplies the bacteria
with
food and a protected habitat and
receives surplus ammonia in exchange. Hence,
legumes can thrive in nitrogen-depleted
soil.
Unfortunately, most of the major food
cropsincluding maize, wheat, rice, and potatoes-
cannot. On the contrary, many
of
the
highyielding
hybrid varieties
of
these
food
crops
bred
during
the
Green Revolution
of
the
1960's
were
selected
specifically to
give
high
yields
in
response
to
generous
applications
of
nitrogen
fertilizer.
This
poses
an
additional, formidable challenge to
plant geneticists: they must work on enhancing
fixation within the existing symbioses.
Unless they succeed, the yield gains of
the Green Revolution will be largely lost even if
the genes in legumes that equip
those
plants
to
enter
into
a
symbiosis
with
nitrogen
fixers
are
identified and
isolated,
and even
if
the
transfer
of
those
gene complexes, once they are found,
becomes possible. The overall task looks
forbidding, but the stakes are too high not
to undertake it. (NO-7-2-B-L)
20. The primary purpose of
the passage is to
(A) expose the
fragile nature of the foundations on which the
high yields of modern agriculture rest
(B) argue that genetic engineering
promises to lead to even higher yields than are
achievable with synthetic fertilizers
(C) argue that the capacity for
nitrogen-fixing symbioses is transferable to
nonleguminous plants
(D) explain the
reasons for and the objectives of current research
on nitrogen-fixing symbioses
(E)
describe the nature of the genes that regulate the
symbiosis between legumes and certain bacteria
21. According to the
passage, there is currently no strain of Rhizobium
that can enter into a symbiosis with
(A) alfalfa
(B) clover
(C) maize
(D) peas
(E) soybeans
22.
The passage implies that which of the following is
true of the bacterial genus Rhizobium?
(A) Rhizobium bacteria are found
primarily in nitrogen-depleted soils.
(B) Some strains of Rhizobium are not
capable of entering into a symbiosis with any
plant.
(C) Newly bred varieties of
legumes cannot be hosts to any strain of
Rhizobium.
(D) Rhizobium bacteria
cannot survive outside the protected habitat
provided by host plants.
(E) Rhizobium
bacteria produce some ammonia for their own
purposes.
23.
It
can
be
inferred
from
the
passage
that
which
of
the
following
was
the
most
influential
factor
in
bringing
about
intensified research on nitrogen
fixation?
(A) The high yields of the
Green Revolution
(B) The persistent
upward surge in natural gas prices
(C)
The variety of Rhizobium strains
(D)
The mechanization of modern agriculture
(E) The environmental ill effects of
synthetic fertilizers
24.
Which of the following situations is most closely
analogous to the situation described by the author
as one of nature's
great ironies (lines
28-32)?
(A) That of a farmer whose
crops have failed because the normal midseason
rains did not materialize and no preparations
for irrigation had been made
(B) That of a long-distance runner who
loses a marathon race because of a wrong turn that
cost him twenty seconds
(C) That of
shipwrecked sailors at sea in a lifeboat, with one
flask of drinking water to share among them
(A) That of a motorist who runs out of
gas a mere five miles from the nearest gas station
(E) That of travelers who want to reach
their destination as fast and as cheaply as
possible, but find that cost increases as
travel speed increases
25. According to the passage, the
ultimate goal of the current research on nitrogen
fixation is to develop
(A) strains of
Rhizobium that can enter into symbioses with
existing varieties of wheat, rice, and other
nonlegnumes
(B)
strains
of
Rhizobium
that
produce
more
ammonia
for
leguminous
host
plants
than
do
any
of
the
strains
presently
known
(C) varieties of
wheat, rice, and other nonlegumes that yield as
much as do existing varieties, but require less
nitrogen
(D) varieties of wheat, rice,
and other nonlegumes that maintain an adequate
symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing
bacteria and produce high yields
(E) high-yielding varieties of wheat,
rice, and other nonlegumes that are genetically
equipped to fix nitrogen from the air
without the aid of bacteria
26. The author regards the research
program under discussion as
(A)
original and extensive but ill-defined as to
method
(B) necessary and ambitious but
vulnerable to failure
(C) cogent and
worthwhile but severely under-funded
(D) prohibitively expensive but
conceptually elegant
(E) theoretically
fascinating but practically useless
27.
Most
nearly
parallel,
in
its
fundamental
approach,
to
the
research
program
described
in
the
passage
would
be
a
program designed to
(A)
achieve greater frost resistance in frost tender
food plants by means of selective
breeding, thereby expanding those
plants' area of cultivation
(B) achieve greater yields from food
plants by interplanting crop plants that are
mutually beneficial
(C) find
inexpensive
and abundant
natural
substances
that
could,
without
reducing
yields,
be
substituted
for expensive
synthetic fertilizers
(D)
change the genetic makeup of food plants that
cannot live in water with high salinity, using
genes from plants adapted
to salt water
(E)
develop,
through
genetic
engineering,
a
genetic
configuration
for
the
major
food
plants
that
improves
the
storage
characteristics of
the edible portion of the plants
Remembrance of Things Past
Many
literary
detectives
have
pored
over
a
great
puzzle
concerning
the
writer
Marcel
Proust:
what
happened
in
1909?
How did Contre Saint-Beuve, an essay attacking the
methods of the critic Saint-Beuve, turn into the
start of the
novel Remembrance of
Things Past? A recently published letter from
Proust to the editor Vallette confirms that
Fallois, the
editor of the 1954 edition
of Contre Saint-Beuve, made an essentially correct
guess about the relationship of the essay to
the
novel.
Fallois
proposed
that
Proust
had
tried
to
begin
a
novel
in
1908,
abandoned
it
for
what
was
to
be
a
long
demonstration
of
Saint-Beuve's
blindness
to
the
real
nature
of
great
writing,
found
the
essay
giving
rise
to
personal
memories and fictional developments,
and allowed these to take over in a steadily
developing novel.
Draft
passages
in
Proust's
1909
notebooks
indicate
that
the
transition
from
essay
to
novel
began
in
Contre
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