-
★
Haliday
—
c
hild language. Macrofunctions: ideational,
interpersonal, textual.
★
what are major
branches of linguistics
? what does each
study?
Phonetics
----
the
study of the phonic medium of language, it’s
concerned with all the sounds
that
occur in the world
’s languages.
Phonology
---the
study of sounds systems
—
the
inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a
language and the patterns into which
they fall.
Morphology
---
It’s
a branch of a grammar which studies the internal
structure of words and
the rules by
which words are formed.
Syntax
-------it's a subfield
of linguistics that studies the sentence structure
of a language.
Semantics-
--
It’s
simply defined as the study of meaning in
abstraction.
Pragmatics
---the
study
of
meaning
in
context
of
words.
The
study
of
how
speakers
of
a
language use
sentences to effect successful communication.
Sociolinguistics
—
the
study of language with reference to society.
Psycholinguistics
---the
study of language with reference to the working of
the mind.
Applied
linguistics
---the application of
linguistic principles and theories to language
teaching
and learning.
Chapter2 Phonology
★
three
branches
of phonetics:
①
Articulatory
—
describes the way our
speech organs work
to
produce
the
speech
sounds
and
how
they
differ.
②
Auditory
-
–
studies
the
physical
properties of
speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion
that phonetic identity is only a
theoretical
ideal.
③
Acoustic
-
–
studies
the
physical
properties
of
speech
sounds
,the
way
sound
travel from the speaker to the hearer.
★
Organs
of
Speech
:
Pharyngeal
cavity
–
咽腔
Oral
cavity
–
口腔
greatest
source
of
modification of air
stream found here
Nasal
cavity
–
鼻腔
★
Broad
transcription:
The transcription of
speech sounds with letter symbols only. (leaf /l/)
★
Narrow
transcription:
The
transcription
of
speech
sound
with
letters
symbols
and
the
diacritics.(dark /l/~)
★
Phonetics
and
Phonology
区别
:
are
concerned
with
the
same
aspect
of
language-
the
speech
sounds.
①
Phonetics:
it
is
interested
in
all
the
speech
sounds
used
in
all
human
languages; phonetic features they
possess; how they can be classified, etc.
②
Phonology: it
aims to discover how speech sounds in a
language form patterns and how these sounds are
used to convey meaning in linguistic
communication.
★
rules in
Phonology:
①
Sequential
rules
: Rules that govern the
combination of sounds in a
particular
language.
②
Assimilation
rules
:
The
assimilation
rule
assimilates
one
sound
to
another
by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme,
thus making the two phones similar.
③
Deletion
rule
:
It’s
a
phonological
rule
which
tells
us
when
a
sound
is
to
be
deleted
although its orthographically
represented.
★
Suprasegmental
超切分特征
:
The
phonemic
features
that
occur
above
the
level
of
the
segment
are
called
suprasegmental
features.
the
main
suprasegmental
features
include
stress
,intonation
and
tone.
(intonation:
when
pitch,
stress
and
sound
lenth
are
tied
to
the
sentence rather than the word in
isolation. //tone: Tone are pitch variations,
which are caused by
the differing rates
of vibration of the vocal cords. Tone is a
suprasegmental feature.)
Chapter3
Morphology
★
open class
words:
new words can be added to these
classes regularly. Such as nouns, verbs,
adjectives
and
adverbs.
Such
as
Beatnik.
Closed
class
words:
conjunctions,
prepositions,
articles and pronouns consist of the
grammatical or functional words. The number of
such
words is small and stable since
few new words are added.
Chapter4
Syntax
★
determine a
word
’
s category:
①
meaning. Word categories
often bear some relationship
with its
meaning. The meaning associated with nouns and
verbs can be elaborated in various
ways.
The
property
or
attribute
of
the
entities
denoted
by
nouns
can
be
elaborated
by
adjectives.(pretty
lady,
attribute
the
property
“
pretty<
/p>
”
to
the
lady.)
②
inflection.
Words of
different
categories take different inflections.
Such nouns as boy and desk take the
plural
affix -s. Verbs such as work and
help take past tense affix -ed and progressive
affix -ing.
③
distribution. That is what
type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.
For example,
the girl and a card
④小结
A word's distributional
facts together with information about its
meaning and inflectional capabilities
help identify its syntactic category.
★
phrase
包括
:
head, specifier, complement
.
①
The word round which phrase
is formed is
termed
head.
②
The
words
on
the
left
side
of
the
heads
are
said
to
function
as
specifiers.
Specifiers have
both special semantic and syntactic roles:
Semantically, they help make more
precise the meaning of the head.
Syntactically, they typically make a phrase
boundary.
③
The
words
on
the
right
side
of
the
heads
are
complements.
Complements
are
themselves
phrases and provide information about
entities and locations whose existence is implied
by
the meaning of the head. They are
attached to the right of the head in English.
★
phrase
structure
rule:
The
special
type
of
grammatical
mechanism
that
regulates
the
arrangement of elements
that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure
rule.
★
XP rule:
In all phrases, the specifier is
attached at the top level to the left of the head
while
the complement is attached to the
right. These similarities can be summarized as an
XP rule,
in which X stands for the head
N,V
,A or P.
(XP----->
(specifier) X (complement))
★
coordination
rule:
Some
structures
are
formed
by
joining
two
or
more
elements
of
the
same type with the help of a
conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is
known as
coordination. Such structure
are called coordination structure. (
Four important
properties
:
①
There
is
no
limit
on
the
number
of
coordinated
categories
that
can
appear
prior
to
the
conjunction.
②
A
category
at
any
level
(a
head
or
an
entire
XP)
can
be
coordinated.
③
Coordinated
categories
must
be
of
the
same
type.
④
The
category
type
of
the
coordinate
phrase
is
identical
to
the
category
type
of
the
elements
being
conjoined.)
Coordination
Rule: X------ > X *Con X)
★
deep structure and surface
structure:
There are two levels of
syntactic structure. The first,
formed
by the XP rule in accordance with the head's
subcategorization properties, is called
deep
structure
(or D-structure).
//The
second,
corresponding
to
the final
syntactic
form
of
the sentence which results from
appropriate transformations, is called surface
structure (or
S-structure).
Chapter 5
Semantics
★
The
naming theory:
(Greek scholar Plato)
According to this theory, the linguistic forms or
symbols, in other words, the words used
in a language are taken to be labels of the
objects
they stand for, so words are
just names or labels for things.
★
The conceptualist
view:
It holds that there is no direct
link between a linguistic form and
what
it
refers
to;
rather
,in
the
interpretation
of
meaning
they
are
linked
through
the
mediation of concepts in
the mind.
★
Contextualism:
(J.R. Firth) people should be studied
in terms of situation, use,
context
—
elements
closely linked with language behaviour.
It’s based on the presumption that one
can
derive
meaning
from
or
reduce
meaning
to
observable
contexts.
two
kinds
of
context:
the
situational
and
the linguistic context.
{A)
the situational context: Every utterance occurs in
a
particular situation, the main
components of which include, the speaker and the
hearer, the
actions they are
performing, the various objects and events
existent in the situation.-----The
seal
could not be found.
B) the
linguistic context: co-text, is concerned with the
probability
of
a
word’s
co
-occurrence
or
collocation
with
another
word,
which
forms
part
of
the
“meaning”
of the word, and also with the part of text that
precedes and follows a
particular
utterance.-----black coffer& black
hair.}
★
Sense
refers to the inherent meaning of a
linguistic form, which is the collection of all
the
features
of
the
linguistic
form,
it’s
abstract
and
de
-contextualized.
//
Reference
is
what
a
linguistic
form refers to in the real, physical world, it is
a matter of relationship between the
form
and
reality.
//
关系
:
①
Linguistic
forms,
having
the
same
sense,
may
have
different
reference in different situations.
②
Linguistic forms with the
same reference may differ in
sense.
-----morning
star=
evening
star.
③
Linguistic
forms
may
have
sense,
but
have
no
reference in the real
world.------dragon, ghost.
★
Hyponymy:
It
refers
to the
sense
relation between
a
more
general,
more
inclusive word
and a more specific word. the word
which is more general in meaning is called
superordinate,
and the more specific
words are called its hyponyms.
★
X entails Y:
entailment: the relationship between two sentences
where the truth of one is
inferred
from
the
truth
of
the
other.
E.g.
Cindy
killed
the
dog
entails
the
dog
is
dead.
(X :John married a
blond heiress.
Y: John
married a blond.)
★
componential
analysis:
an approach to analyze the
lexical meaning into a set of meaning
components
or
semantic
features.
For
example,
boy
may
be
shown
as
[+human]
[+male]
[-adult].
semantic
features:
The
smallest
units
of
meaning
in
a
word,
which
may
be
described as a
combination of semantic components. For example,
woman has the semantic
features
[+human]
[-male]
[+adult].
//Advantages:
by
specifying
the
semantic
features
of
certain word, it will be
possible to show how these words are related in
meaning.
★
Predication
Analysis:
①
The meaning of a
sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of
all its components, that is, the
meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by
adding up all
the meanings of its
constituent words. E.g: The dog bit the man.
&
The man bit the dog.
②
There are two aspects to
sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic
meaning.
Grammaticality:
grammatical
(well-
formedness);
Semantically
meaningful:
selectional
restrictions.
(selectional
restriction:
Whether
a
sentence
is
semantically
meaningful
is
governed by the rules
called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints
on what lexical items can
go with what
others.)
……
(consist of
predicate and argument)
Chapter 6
pragmatics
★
Context
(John
Firth): The notion of context is essential to the
pragmatic study of language,
it’s
generally
considered
as
constituted
by
the
knowledge
shared
by
the
speaker
and
the
hearer.
★
Speech act
theory
(John Austin)
★
Searle
’
s
Classification
of
Speech
Acts
:
1
representatives:
Stating
or
describing,
saying
what the speaker believes to be true. 2
directives: Trying to get the hearer to do
something. 3