-
1.1 The concept
1)
Translation can refer to the general
subject, the product or the act of translating. It
involves changing an original written text in
original language into
a written text
in target language.
2)
Czech
structuralist Roman
Jakobson
’
s categories:
A.
intra-lingual
translation,
or
rewording
: an interpretation
of verbal signs by means of other signs of the
same language;
B.
inter-lingual translation,
translation proper
: an
interpretation of signs by means of some other
language
C.
Inter-
semiotic translation,
transmutation
: by means of
signs of non-verbal sign systems.
3)
Intralingua
translation occurs when rephrase, explain or
clarify. Intersemiotic translation occurs if a
text were translated into music, film or painting.
1.2 Translation studies?
○
1
Throughout
history, translations have played a crucial role
in inter-human communication, providing access to
important texts of academic and
religious value.
○
2
Yet translation
as an academic subject begun only fifty years ago,
the Dutch-based US scholar James S. Holmes in 1972
describes the
then nascent discipline
as being concerned with the problems clustered
round the translating and translations.
○
3
1988, Marx
Snell-Hornbs wrote that the
breathtaking development and prolific
international discussions call for translation
studies as an independent discipline.
○
4
Mona Baker says
the exciting
new discipline bringing
together scholars from a wide variety of
traditional disciplines. Now, the discipline
continues to develop from strength to strength.
There are
two
very visible ways
in which translation
has become more prominent.
1)
2)
The proliferation of translating and
interpreting
courses
.
In
1999/2000, there were at least
20
postgraduate translation courses in the UK and
several Centers of Translation, at least 250
universities in over 60 countries
offering commercial translation courses, and still
other courses, in smaller numbers, focus on
literary translation.
The
1990s also saw numerous
conferences
,
books and journals
on
translation in many languages.
Long-
standing international journals such as
Babel
,
Meta
have been joined by,
Literature in
Translation
, The Translator,
Perspectives
(France),
as well as a whole host of
comparative literature.
John
Benjamins, Routledge and St Jerome published a
number of books. In addition, there are
professional publications include
Interpreting
and
In Other Words
. Other
smaller
periodicals
give
details of forthcoming events, International
translation
conferences
were
held in many countries.
?
Translation
and
training
translators
(Bratislava,
Slovakia);
?
Literary translation
(Mons, Belgium);
?
Legal
translation (Geneva, Switzerland);
?
Gender and translation
(Norwich, UK);
?
Translation
and
meaning
(Maastricht,
the
Netherlands);
?
Research
models
in
translation
studies
(UMIST,
Manchester, UK);
?
Translation
as/at
the
crossroads
of
culture
(Lisbon,
Portugal);
?
Translation and globalization (Tangiers, Morocco);
?
The history of translation
(Leon, Spain);
?
Trans-
adaptation and pedagogical challenges (Turku,
Finland):
?
Translation-focused
comparative
literature
(Pretoria,
South Africa and
Salvador, Brazil).
Introducing
Translation Studies:
Theories and applications
Chapter 1
Main
issues of translation studies
The
abundance
of translation
activities indicates that it has now become one of
the most active and dynamic new areas of research.
1.3 A brief history
1)
Writings on
translating go far back in
history
, for example,
Cicero, Horace have exerted important influences.
St Jerome
’
s
approach would affect later
Scriptures
translations
,
which was the
battle- ground of conflicting ideologies for
over1000 years.
2)
Although
translating
practice
is
long
established,
the
study
was
not
an
academic
discipline
until
the
2
nd
half
of
20th
century.
Before
that,
grammar-translation
method
had dominated secondary schools which centered on
the rote of grammatical rules of the foreign
language.
The gearing of
3)
USA promoted
translation in 1960s. Based on I. A. Richardss
reading and creative writing workshops,
translation workshops were established in Iowa
and
Princeton,
intended
as
a
platform
for
introduction
and
discussion
of
finer
translation
principles.
Parallel
to
this
approach
was
comparative
literature
, necessitating
translation.
4)
Contrastive analysis
attempts to identify differences between
languages,
although useful,
seldom incorporate sociocultural and
pragmatic factors.
5)
In 1950s and
1960s. A number of linguistic studies of
translation not only demonstrated
their
gut link with translation
, but also
began to mark out the
territory of translation.
Nida used the word
science
.
1.4 The Holmes/Toury map
1)
Holmes
’
s paper
the name and nature of translation
studies
is the
founding
statement
. He noticed that translation
research was
dispersed
. He
stresses
the need to forge
channels, cutting across disciplinary gaps to
reach all scholars working in the
field
. He puts forward an overall
framework, and has
subsequently been
presented by Israeli Gideon Toury.
2)
General
theories
should
seek to describe or account for every
type of translation and to make generalizations
for all.
3)
Descriptive translation
studies
: examination of (l) the
product, (2) function and (3) the process:
A.
Product-
oriented DTS
examines existing
translations. E.g. an analysis of a single ST-TT
pair or a comparative analysis of several TTs of
the
same ST. smaller-scale studies look
at a specific period, language or text type.
Larger-scale can be either diachronic or
synchronic.
B.
Function-oriented DTS,
cultural oriented translation studies,
a study of contexts rather than texts. E.g. which
books were translated when and
where,
and what influences.
C.
Process-
oriented DTS
: the psychology of
translation, i.e. it is concerned with what
happens in the mind of a translator. Some later
researches
work on think-aloud
protocol.
4)
Partial theories
: restricted
according to the parameters discussed below.
A.
Medium-
restricted theories
: machine
translation and human translation, whether the
machine/computer is working alone or as an aid to
human
translators, written or spoken,
whether spoken translation (interpreting) is
consecutive or simultaneous.
B.
Area-
restricted theories
are restricted
to
specific languages or groups of
languages and/or cultures.
C.
Rank-
restricted theories
are restricted to a
specific level of (normally) the word or sentence,
or text.
D.
Text-type restricted
theories
look at discourse types or
genres; e.g. literary, business and technical
translation.
E.
Time-restricted theories
.
F.
Problem-restricted theories
,
specific problems such as equivalence, universals
of translated language.
5)
The applied branch of Holmess framework
concerns:
A.
Translator training
:
teaching methods, testing techniques, curriculum
design;
B.
Translation aids
:
dictionaries, grammars and information technology;
C.
Translation
criticism
: evaluation, the marking of
student translations and the reviews of published
translations.
D.
Translation policy
: the
place of translation in society, i in the language
teaching and learning curriculum.
6)
Theoretical,
descriptive and applied areas do influence one
another.
translation to
language teaching partly explain why academia
considered it to be of
secondary
status
.
Study of translated
works
was generally frowned upon once a
student
mastered skills to read the
original.
7)
8)
The main
merit:
allow a
clarification
and a division of labor
between various
areas, yet flexible enough to incorporate recent
advances.
Translation
policy
would
nowadays
far
more
likely
be
related
to
the
ideology.
The
different
restrictions,
might
well
include
a
discourse
type.
Additionally,
Holmes
’
s map omits any
mention of individual style, decision-making
processes.
1.5
Developments since 1970s
Contrastive analysis
fell by
the wayside, the concept of
equivalence
also declined.
The
linguistic-oriented
science
of translation continued
strongly in
Germany, then
text types and text purpose
flourished,
after which the
Hallidayan
influence
has been prominent; Then
comes the
descriptive
approach
.
Even-Zohar and
Gideon Toury pursued the idea of the
literary polysystem
; Hermans
founded the
Manipulation
School
; The dynamic,
culturally oriented
approach
held sway for much
of the following decade; Then 1990s saw n
Canadian-based
gender
translation
by Sherry Simon, the
Brazilian cannibalist
school
by Else Vieira,
postcolonial translation
theory
by Bengali scholars Tejaswini
Niranjana and Spivak and, the
cultural
-oriented analysis of Lawrence
Venuti
.
For years, translation was considered
to be
derivative
. Now it is
making swift advances worldwide, though still
denied parity with other researches
.
Chapter 2
Translation
theory before the 20th century
1
．
Word-for-word or sense-for-sense?
1)
The central
recurring theme of word-for-word and sense-for-
sense translation is a dominating debate.
Translation theory is
locked in a
sterile debate
over
literal,
free and faithful
translation (George
Steiner). Such debate goes back to Cicero
(1
st
century BC) and St
Jerome (late 4
th
century
CE).
2)
Cicero
outlined his approach
to translation of the speeches of the Attic
orators
I did not translate as an
interpreter but as an orator,
keeping
the same ideas and forms, in language which
conforms to our usage.
And in so
doing,
I
did not hold it
necessary to render word for word
, but
I preserved the general style and force of the
language.
an orator tried
to move the listeners.
3)
Horace
underlines the goal
of producing an
aesthetically pleasing
and creative text
in the TL.
4)
St
Jerome
, the most famous of all, in a
letter addressed to a senator, defending himself:
In translating
from the Greek -
I render not word-for-
word, but sense-for- sense, except in the case of
the Holy Scripture
, where even the
syntax contains a mystery
To illustrate the TL taking over the
sense of the ST, he uses a
military
image
of the original text marched into
the TL like a prisoner by its conqueror.
2
．
Martin Luther
1)
Issues of
free and literal
translation
were bound up with
religious and philosophical texts for over 1000
years.
2)
Any translation diverging from the
accepted was likely to be deemed
heretical
. The French
humanist
Etienne Dolet
was
burned at the stake for adding
the
phrase
rien du tout
.
3)
Later, non-literal translation was used
as a
weapon
against Church.
E.g. Luther infused the Bible translation with the
language of ordinary people.
You must ask the
mother
at home, the
children
in the street, the
man
in the market and look
at their mouths, how they speak, and translate
that way; then
they’ll
understand and see
that
you’re
speaking to them
in German.
4)
He rejects
word-for-word translation since it would be
sometimes be incomprehensible.
3
．
Faithfulness, spirit and truth
1)
Flora Amos
sees the history of the translation theory was
generally unconnected;
e.g. many prefaces and comments often
ignored most of what had been written before:
2)
Early
translators often
differed in
terms
such as faithfulness, accuracy
and even the word translation itself.
3)
Kelly traces
the history of
fidelity
,
spirit
and
truth
.
Fidelity
had initially been
dismissed as literal
translation
by Horace. At
the end of 17 century, it
became
semantic
faithfulness
. The
Latin word spiritus denotes
creative
energy or
inspiration, but St Augustine used it to mean
Holy Spirit,
and St
Jerome employed it in both senses. For
St Augustine, spirit, truth and content are a
continuum; for St Jerome, truth meant the
authentic Hebrew text. It
was not until
the 20 century that truth was fully equated with
content
.
4
．
Early attempts at translation theory:
Dryden, Dolet and Tytler
1)
Cowley
deplores the
inevitable loss of beauty in poetry translation,
suggests using wit or invention to create new
beauty and reproduce the spirit.
Cowley
even proposes
imitation
for
this.
2)
For Amos
(1920), the England of the 17 century marked an
important step forward in translation theory with
reasoned statements.
3)
John
Dryden
reduces all translation to three
Categories: (author-oriented description)
IMP
A.
Metaphrase
: word by word and
line by line;
B.
Paraphrase
: translate with
latitude, while keep the author in view, follow
his sense closely;
C.
Imitation
: forsake both
words and sense, more or less adaptation.
D.
Dryden criticizes Ben Johnson as a
verbal copier
:
Tis much like dancing on ropes with
fettered legs
.
E.
He also
rejects imitation,
where the
translator supposes what author would have done in
our age and our country. It allows the translator
to
become more visible, but does the
greatest wrong to the reputation of the dead.
5)
Etienne Dolet
set out five principles in order of
importance: AAAUK
a)
Understand
the sense and
material of the original author.
b)
Knowledge
of both SL and TL,
so as not to lessen the majesty of the language.
c)
Avoid word-
for-word renderings.
d)
Avoid Latinate and unusual forms.
e)
Avoid
clumsiness, liaise words eloquently.
6)
Alexander
Fraser Tilter
s Essay
on the
principles of translation
(1797) is TL-
reader-oriented: idea, style, ease
A.
The merit of
the original is so completely transfused as to be
distinctly felt,
as it is by
those who speak the language of the original.
B.
A complete
transcript of the
ideas
of
the original.
C.
The
style
and
manner.
The first two laws
are the poles of faithfulness of content and
form.
D.
Have all the
ease
of the original composition.
E.
Tytler ranks
his three laws in order of importance. The
discussion of translation loss and gain is in some
ways presaged by him.
5
．
Schleiermacher and the valorization of
the foreign:
issues of translatability
or untranslatability.
1)
Friedrich
Schleiermacher, the German theologian: ST meaning
is couched in culture-bound language and to which
the TL can never fully correspond.
2)
In 1813, he
wrote
On the different methods of
translating
, adopted a romantic
approach based on inner feeling and understanding.
3)
Two types of translator:
A.
the
interpreter, who translates commercial texts;
B.
the
translator, works on scholarly artistic texts. (On
a higher creative plane, breathing new life)
4)
There are only
two paths open to bring ST writer and TT reader
together. He preferred moving reader towards
writer, giving the same impression.
Either the translator leaves the writer
alone and moves the reader toward the writer, or
he leaves the reader alone as much as possible and
moves
the writer toward the reader.
(Schleiermacher 1813/1992: 41-2)
To achieve this, the translator must
adopt an alienating method, valorize the foreign.
b)
5)
His consideration of
different text types
,
alienating and naturalizing
opposites
, vision of
a
language of translation
,
hermeneutics
.
6
．
Translation theory of the 19 and early
20 centuries in Britain
In Britain,
that period focused on the status of the ST and
the form of the TL
. Matthew Arnold in
his lecture On Translating Homer, advocated a
transparent
translation
method. Arnold advises his audience to put their
faith in scholars, who are the only ones qualified
to compare the effect. Such an
é
litist attitude led both to
the
devaluation
of
translation (TT could never reach the heights of
an ST and preferable to read the original work)
and to the
marginalization of
translation.
7
．
Towards contemporary translation theory
George Steiner: very small range of
theoretical ideas covered in this period:
We have seen how translation theory
pivots monotonously around undefined alternatives:
letter or spirit, word or sense.
Chapter 3
Equivalence and equivalent
effect
1 Roman Jakobson: the nature of
linguistic meaning and equivalence
1)
2)
American structuralist Roman Jakobson
follows Saussure. The signifier and signified form
the linguistic sign, but that sign is arbitrary or
unmotivated.
Translation
involves substituting messages in one language for
entire messages
in some
other language, i.e. two-equivalent messages in
two different codes.
Since two
different sign systems partition reality
differently,
there is ordinarily no
full equivalence.
Thus, equivalence
focuses on structure and terminology
differences rather than inability of
one to render a message in another.
Examples:
gender,
aspect
: in Russian, the verb
morphology varies according to whether the action
has been completed or not; semantic fields, e.g.
uncle
Only poetry - where form
expresses sense, where phonemic similarity is
sensed as semantic relationship - is
untranslatable
a)
to seek to
communicate the
same impression
, the level of education
and understanding of the TT readers also
influence
;
a
language of translation may be
necessary,
compensating
here with an
imaginative word while elsewhere
make
do
with a hackneyed
expression.
3)
2 Nida and the science of translating
1)
Nida attempts
to move translation into a more
scientific
era. He borrows
from semantics, pragmatics and generative-
transformational grammar.
2)
A word
acquires meaning through its
context
and produce varying
responses with different cultures. Context is
especially important when dealing with
metaphorical meaning and cultural
idioms, where the sense often diverges from the
sum of the individual elements.
3)
There are
linguistic
,
referential
(the denotative
dictionary meaning) and
emotive
(or connotative)
meaning.
4)
In determining the meaning,
hierarchical structuring, componential
analysis
and
Semantic
structure analysis
are used.
5)
Chomsky
’
s
generative-transformational model analyzes
sentences into a series of related levels governed
by rules:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Structure relations are universal
feature of human language.
Phrase-structure rules generate a deep
structure, Transformed by TG, relating one deep
structure to another (e.g. active to passive), to
produce
A final surface structure,
which itself is subject to phonological and
morphemic rules.
The most
basic sentences are kernel sentences, simple,
active, declarative that require minimum
transformation.
a)
Kernel is the
basic structural elements out of which language
builds its elaborate surface structures.
b)
All languages agree easier on the level
of kernels than on surface.
The surface structure of the ST is
analyzed into the basic elements of the deep
structure; then transferred and restructured
semantically and
stylistically into TT
surface structure (analysis, transfer and
restructuring).
Compared to attempts to
draw up a fully comprehensive list of
equivalences.
Formal
equivalence:
Focuses on message in both
form and content
. ST structure
determines accuracy and correctness. E.g. gloss
translations.
Dynamic
equivalence:
based on effect,
which
of TL should be the same as that
in SL,
a graded
concept.
a)
The message has to be tailored to the
receptor
’
s needs and
cultural expectation and aims at the closest
natural equivalent.
b)
Adaptations of
grammar, lexicon and cultural references is
essential to achieve naturalness.
The success of the translation depends
on achieving
equivalent
response.
a)
Making sense;
conveying the spirit and manner of the original
b)
natural and
easy;
6)
Formal
and dynamic equivalence and equivalent effect,
correspondence in meaning must have
priority over style.
A.
B.
C.
F.
7)
Discussion of
Nida
’
s work
A.
It inevitably
entails subjective judgment from the translator or
analyst. His equivalence is overly described at
the word level
B.
Nida pointed a road away from word-for
word equivalence. His model introduced a receptor-
based orientation.
C.
Van den Broeck
and Larose consider equivalent effect to be
impossible (how to measure and on whom?). Qian Hu
demonstrated the
impossibility of
achieving equivalent effect when meaning is bound
up in form.
Nida is aware of the
artistic sensitivity which is an
indispensable ingredient in any first-
rate translation.
D.
It remains debatable whether a
translator follows these procedures in practice.
E.
Gentzler denigrates Nidas work for its
theological and proselytizing standpoint.
F.
However, Nida achieved what few of his
predecessors attempted: he factored into the
translation equation the receivers of TT and their
cultural expectations.
3 Newmark: semantic and communicative
translation
(Newmark 1981)
1)
Equivalent
effect is illusory
and
loyalty conflict will always remain as
the overriding problem
.
2)
He also raises
questions concerning dynamic equivalence, asking
if they are to be handed everything on
a plate, with everything explained for
them
.
3)
Newmark suggests narrowing the gap with
semantic and communicative translation:
A.
Communicative
translation
: equivalent effect,
inoperant if the text is out of TL
space and time, e.g.
Homer
B.
Semantic
translation:
render as closely as the
semantic and syntactic structures of SL allow, the
exact contextual meaning of the original.
C.
Semantic
translation differs from literal translation in
that it respects context
D.
Provided that
equivalent effect is secured, the literal word-
for-word translation is the best, only valid
method.
E.
If
there is a conflict between the two forms of
translation, namely if semantic translation would
result in an abnormal TT or would not secure
equivalent effect, then communicative
translation should win out.
4)
Discussion of
Newmark:
criticized for his strong
prescriptivism, and his evaluations still bears
traces of prelinguistics era
Parameter
Transmitter/addressee
Focus
on thought
Semantic translation
Communicative translation
Subjective, TT reader
Culture
Time and origin
Remains within the SL culture
Not
fixed
in
any
time
or
local
space;
translation
needs
to
be
done
anew
with
every
generation
Transfers foreign
elements into the TL culture
Ephemeral
and rooted in its own contemporary context
Relation to ST
Use of SL
formf
Form of TL
Appropriateness
Always inferior to ST; loss of meaning
clarity
If ST language deviate, then
replicate in TT; loyalty to ST author
More complex, awkward, detailed,
concentrated; tendency to overtranslate
For serious literature, autobiography,
personal effusion, any important political (or
other)
statement
May be better than ST; gain
of force and semantic content
Respect,
but overriding loyalty to TL norms
Smoother, simpler, direct, more
conventional; tend to under translate
For the vast majority of texts, e.g.
non-literary writing, technical and
informative texts, publicity,
standardized types, popular fiction
Accuracy of communication of ST message
in TT
Criterion for evaluation
Accuracy of reproduction of the
significance of ST
4 Koller
1979:
Field
Research area
Knowledge
Competence
Contrastive
Linguistics
Correspondence phenomena and conditions
Langue
Foreign language
Competence
Science of Translation
Equivalence phenomena, hierarchy of
utterances and texts in SL equivalence criterion
Parole
Translation
competence
5 different types of
equivalence:
DC
TPP
华盛顿
Tpp
协议
A.
Denotative equivalence:
content invariance.
B.
Stylistic
equivalence
: the
lexical choices
,
especially between near-synonyms.
C.
Text-normative equivalence
is related to t
ext
types
.
D.
Communicative equivalence,
is oriented towards the receiver of the text or
message.
E.
Expressive
equivalence
, includes word
plays and the individual stylistic features of the
ST
Equivalence
How attainable
Denotative
correspondences and their interaction
with textual factors
Connotative/stylistic
o
ften only approximate
Text-normative
Description
and correlation of patterns of usage between
languages using functional text
analysis
Pragmatic
For particular readership,
overriding the
requirements
of
other equivalences
Formal/expressive
An analogy
of form in the TL, using the possibilities
of
the TL and
even creating new ones
Research
focus
Lexis
formality
(poetic,
slang,
etc.),
social
usage,
geographical
origin,
stylistic
effect
(archaic, plain, etc.), frequency,
range (general, technical, etc.), evaluation,
emotion
usage in different
communicative situations
communicative
conditions
Rhyme, metaphor, stylistic
forms
5 Later developments in
equivalence
A.
Mona Baker, in In Other Words,
equivalence is influenced by a variety
of linguistic and cultural factors and is
therefore always relative
.
B.
Kenny:
equivalence is supposed to define translation, and
translation, in turn, defines equivalence.
Chapter 4
The translation
shift approach
1
Vinay and Darbelnets
model
(2000)
1)
Direct
translation:
a)
Borrowing
: The SL
word is transferred directly to the TL
to fill a semantic gap
.
b)
Caique
:
the SL
expression or structure is transferred
in a literal translation.
仿造
c)
Literal
translation
:
word-for-word
translation
, the most common between
languages of the same family and culture.
2)
Oblique translation.
In cases
where not possible,
the strategy of oblique translation must be
use
d. This covers a further four
procedures:
a)
Transposition
: a change of
one part of speech for another without changing
the sense, probably the most common structural
change.
b)
Modulation
调节
:
changes the semantics and point of view of the SL:
A.
Obligatory: e,g. the time when--- le
moment où
[lit. the moment where];
B.
Optional,
linked to preferred structures of the two
languages:
e.g. it is not difficult to
show
?
, il est facile de
dé
montrer
[lit. it is easy to show].
C.
Modulation is
the touchstone of a good translator, whereas
transposition simply shows a very good command of
the target language.
Modulation at the
level of message is subdivided along the following
lines:
抽象具体、因果、局部整体、局部替换，倒置，否定，主
被动转换、时空
Change of symbol (including fixed and
new metaphors).
c)
Equivalence
等值
:
Cases where languages describe the same situation
by different stylistic or structural means,
particularly useful in translating
idioms and proverbs (the sense, not the
image, of comme un chien dans un jeu de quilles
[lit. like a dog in a set of skittles] can be
rendered as
like a bull in a china
shop).
d)
Adaptation
改编
:
Changing the cultural reference when a situation
in the source culture does not exist in the target
culture. For example, the
game of
cricket might be best translated into French by a
reference to the Tour de France.
These operate on three levels:
a)
the lexicon;
connectors, discourse markers, deixis and
punctuation
b)
syntactic structures; word order and
thematic structure
c)
the message
：
The
utterance and its metalinguistic situation or
context.
A further
important parameter is that of servitude and
option:
A.
Servitude: obligatory transpositions
and modulations for difference between language
systems;
B.
Option: non-obligatory changes for
style and preferences.
C.
It is option, the stylistic realm that
should be the translator
’
s
main concern. Translator should choose among the
available options to
express the
nuances of the message. Five steps for options:
只有下列情况例外，
(a)
gives
a
different
meaning
or
no
meaning;
(b)
Impossible
for
structural
reasons;
(c)
not
have
a
corresponding
expression
within
the
metalinguistic
experience of the TL; (d) corresponds to something
at a different level of language.
3)
4)
a)
Identify the
translation units.
b)
Evaluating the descriptive, affective
and intellectual content of the units.
c)
Reconstruct
the metalinguistic context of the message.
d)
Evaluate the
stylistic effects.
e)
Produce and revise the TT.
The
authors reject the individual word to favor units.
Translation units are combination of lexicological
unit and unit of thought: the smallest utterance
segment whose signs are linked in such
a way that they should not be translated
individually.
To facilitate
analysis where oblique translation is used, Vinay
and Darbelnet suggest numbering the translation
units in both the ST and IT. The units
can then be compared to see which
translation procedure has been adopted.
2
Catford and
translation shifts
1)
Catford follows Firthian and Hallidayan
model, analyzes language as communication,
operating functionally in context and different
levels and ranks
2)
A formal correspondent
: a
system-based concept. Any TL category occupy the
same place of TL as the given SL category occupies
in SL.
3)
A
textual equivalent
: any TL text
(portion of text) equivalent to a given SL text,
tied to a particular ST-TT pair
4)
Translation
shifts
are
departures from
formal correspondence in translation
.
a)
A level
shift
: expressed by grammar in one
language and lexis in another
b)
category
shifts:
A.
Structural shifts:
The most
common, mostly a shift in grammatical structure.
B.
Class shifts:
These comprise
shifts from one part of speech to another. a
medical student.
词类转换
C.
Unit or rank
shifts:
the equivalent TL is at a
different rank.
级阶转换
D.
Intra-system
shifts
: SL and TL possess similar
systems but involves a non-corresponding term.
E.g. advice
5)
His analysis of intra-system shifts was
later heavily criticized for its static
comparative linguistic approach. Henry considers
it to be of historical
1
Equivalence
depends
on
communicative
features
rather
than
just
linguistic
criteria.
○
2
deciding
what
is
functionally
academic
interest
only.
○
3
His examples
are almost all idealized and decontextualized.
○
4
He never looks
above the sentence level.
relevant is a matter of opinion.
○
3 Czech writing on
translation shifts
(60
年代
)
1
Lev?
2
Denotative meaning, connotation
1)
○
sees literary translation as both reproductive and
creative, with the goal of equivalent aesthetic
effect.
○
stylistic
arrangement, syntax, sound repetition (rhythm,
etc.), vowel length and articulation should be
factored into equivalence and their importance
3
He
also
looks
to
game
theory
for
inspiration.
○
4
real-world
translation
is
pragmatic:
MINIMAX
STRATEGY
:
The
depends
on
text
type.
○
translator resolves for
that one which promises a maximum of effect with a
minimum of effort.
2)
Franti?ek
Miko
maintains that
retaining the expressive style of ST is the main
goal of translator.
He suggests an
analysis under categories such as
operativity
,
iconicity, subjectivity, affectation,
prominence
and
contrast
.
An
analysis of expression shifts, applied to all
levels, will bring to light
the general
system of the translation, with its dominant and
subordinate elements.
3)
Popovi?
relates
shifts
to
literal
vs.
free
debate,
they
arise
from
the
tension
between
original
text
and
translation
ideal.
The
entry
adequacy
is
synonymous with both faithfulness to
the original stylistic equivalence. The latter is
functional equivalence aiming at identical
meaning.
4 Van Leuven-
Zwarts comparative-descriptive model of
translation shifts
1)
Kitty
van
Leuven-
Zwart
of
Amsterdam
draws
on
Vinay
and
Darbelnet
and
Lev,
attempting
to
systematize
comparison
and
build
a
discourse
framework for fictional texts above
sentence level.
2)
The
descriptive
model
borrows
from
narratology
and
stylistics,
attempts
to
interweave
the
concepts
of
discourse
level
(the
fictional
linguistic
expression) and
story level with three linguistic meta-functions.
3)
The analytical model
involves totaling the number of each kind of
shift.
4)
The comparative model
involves a detailed comparison of ST and TT and a
classification of all the microstructural shifts:
A.
First divides
selected passages into comprehensible
units--
transemes
;
B.
Next, defines the
Architranseme
, the invariant
core sense of ST transeme.
C.
Comparison
of separate
transeme with the Architranseme and establish
relationship between the two transemes.
D.
If both
transemes have a synonymic relationship with the
Architranseme, no shift occurred.
E.
The absence of
a synonymic relationship indicates a shift in
translation;
a)
Modulation
：
One of
the transemes tallies with the Architranseme, but
the other differs semantically or stylistically
b)
Modification
：
Both
transemes show some form of disjunction
(semantically, stylistically, syntactically,
pragmatically)
c)
Mutation
：
When
impossible to establish an Architranseme because
of addition, deletion or some radical change in
meaning in TT
5)
Drawbacks
：
A.
The
comparative model is extremely complex. There are
8 different categories and 37 subcategories, not
all clearly differentiated.
B.
Keeping track
of all the shifts throughout a long text is also
difficult.
C.
The use of the Architranseme as an
equivalence measure encounters the same kind of
problem concerning its subjectivity.
Chapter 5
Functional theories of translation
1 Katharina Reisss in 1970s
1)
Views texts as
the level at which communication is achieved and
equivalence sought.
a)
b)
c)
d)
informative:
Plain
facts
communication
:
information,
knowledge,
opinions,
etc.
The
language is logical or
referential, the content is the main focus.
expressive:
Creative
composition
:
aesthetic
dimension.
The
author,
message
form
is
foregrounded.
appellative:
Inducing
behavioral responses
: appeal to or
persuade the reader to act in a
certain
way. The language form is dialogic.
Audiomedial texts
, films and
advertisements which supplement the other three
functions.
Text
type
Language function
Language
Dimension
Text focus
TT should
Translation Method
Informative
Informative
Logical
Content-
focused
Transmit referential content
Plain prose
，
explicitation as required
Expressive
Expressive
Aesthetic
Form-focused
Transmit aesthetic form
Identifying, adopt perspective of ST
author
Operative
Appellative
Dialogic
Appellative
focused
吁请
Elicit
desired response
Adaptive
，
equivalent effect
2)
3)
The predominant function of
the ST
is the determining factor when
judge a TT. She suggests specific methods for
different text type:
a)
The
informative
TT should transmit the full referential content of
the ST. Use explicitation when required.
b)
The
expressive
TT should
transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the
ST. adopting the standpoint of the ST author.
c)
The
operative
TT should produce
the desired response in the TT receiver. Creating
an equivalent effect among readers.
d)
Audio-medial
texts
require supplementing written
words with visual images and music.
instruction criteria to assess the
adequacy of a TT:
a)
intralinguistic criteria:
semantic, lexical, grammatical and
stylistic features;
b)
extralinguistic
criteria
: situation, field, time,
place, receiver, affective implications (humor,
irony; emotion, etc.).
c)
The importance of these
criteria vary according to text type, it is more
important for a metaphor to be retained in the
expressive text.
There are occasions when
the function of the TT may differ from that of the
ST. Gullivers Travels is written as a satirical
novel to attack the government (i.e. an
operative text), it is nowadays
translated as ordinary entertaining fiction (i.e.
an expressive text). Alternatively, a TT may have
a different communicative function
from
the ST: an operative election address may be
translated in another country for finding out what
policies have been presented and how.
4)
2
1)
Discussion of
the text type approach
A.
Reisss work moves translation theory
towards a consideration of the communicative
purpose
. However,
can text
types really be differentiated?
B.
Why only three
types of language function?
C.
How
Reiss
’
s methods are to be
applied in the case of a specific text?
D.
The translation
method
employed
depends on
far more
than
just
text
type. The translators own role and purpose, as
well as
sociocultural
pressures, also affect the kind of
translation strategy that is adopte
d.
Translational action
Translation is purpose-
driven, outcome oriented human interaction, a
message-transmitter compounds involving
intercultural transfer:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
the
initiator
: the company or individual
who needs the translation;
the
commissioner:
the individual who
contacts the translator;
ST
producer:
the individual within the
company who writes the ST;
TT
producer:
the translator;
TT
user:
the person who uses the TT; for
example as teaching material or sales literature;
TT receiver
: the final
recipient of the TT; for example the students in a
TT users class or clients.
2)
Interlingual
translation is a communicative process involving a
series of roles and players, each have their own
specific primary and secondary goals.
3)
Focuses on
producing a
functionally communicative
TT whose
form and genre must be
functionally suitable, which is in turn determined
by the
translator, whose role is to
make sure the intercultural transfer takes place
satisfactorily.
ST is analyzed for its
construction and function profile.
Relevant features are described
according to the age-old split of content and
form:
a)
Content
, (a) factual
information and (b) overall communicative
strategy.
b)
Form
, (a) terminology and
(b) cohesive elements.
4)
The
receiver
needs
are
the
determining
factors.
Thus,
a
technical
term
in
an
ST
manual
may
require
clarification
for
a
non-technical
TT
user.
Additionally, to maintain cohesion for
TT reader, a single term will need to be
translated consistently.
5)
Discussion of translational action
a)
Placing of
translation within its sociocultural context,
including the interplay between translator and the
initiating institution.
b)
It is relevant
for all types of translation and provides
guidelines for every decision to be taken by the
translator.
(Sch?
ffner 1997:
5)
c)
However,
the complexity of its jargon does little to
explain practical translation situations. Also, it
fails to consider cultural difference in detail.
d)
Nord also
takes issue with her disregard of the ST.
3 Skopos theory
1)
Skopos is the
Greek word for aim or purpose and was introduced
by Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term, aim at a
general translation theory.
2)
It is a ST-
based translational action, negotiated and
performed with a purpose which determines the
methods and strategies.
3)
TT is an offer
of information in a target culture and TL, and
is determined by its skopos. The skopos
rule is predominating when conflict. The
translator is the key player. TT does
not initiate an offer of information in a clearly
reversible way, thus a transtatum is not
necessarily the same as in
the source
culture.
4)
TT must be internally coherent and
coherent with the ST, in order of importance:
A.
The coherence
rule
states that the TT must be
coherent for the TT receivers, given their
circumstances and knowledge.
B.
The fidelity
rule
merely states that there must be
coherence between the translatum and the ST:
C.
The dethroning of ST is a general fact
of both skopos and translational action theory.
5)
An advantage
of skopos theory is that it allows different
translations for different purposes of commission.
A.
The skopos
needs to be stated in the commission, (1) a goal
and (2) the conditions (deadline and fee).
B.
Adequacy comes to override equivalence.
If TT fulfils the skopos, it is functionally and
communicatively adequate.
6)
Discussion of
skopos theory
A.
Literary texts have no specific purpose
and is stylistically far more complex.
B.
Does not pay
sufficient attention to the linguistic nature of
ST nor to the microlevel features in TT. Even if
the skopos is adequate, it may be
inadequate at the stylistic or semantic
levels of individual segments.
C.
Jargon like
translatum does little to further translation
theory.
D.
Cultural issues and differences must
surely be essential when deciding on how the
skopos can be achieved.
E.
To what extent does ST type determine
translation method and what is the logic of the
link between ST and skopos.
4 Christiane
Nord
’
s Text Analysis.
1)
Nord’s Text Analysis strives for a
universal model of ST analysis based on a
functional concept.
2)
Documentary:
document a source culture communication
between author and ST recipient.
E.g. in literary
translation, where TT allows access to the ideas
of the ST but the reader is well aware that it is
a translation.
3)
4)
Instrumental:
translation
serves as a message-transmitting instrument.
TT receivers read the TT as though it
were an ST written in their own language.
Approaches:
1
translator
needs to compare ST and TT profiles defined in the
commission for priority
2
the role of ST analysis;
Presuppositions
;
subject
matter;
content
: including
connotation and cohesion;
composition
: including microstructure
and macrostructure;
non-verbal
elements
: illustrations,
italics, etc.;
lexis
: including dialect, register and
specific terminology;
sentence
structure
;
supra segmental
features
: including stress, rhythm and
stylistic punctuation.
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