城市轨道交通专业英语

2021年2月27日发(作者：newspaper)

城市轨道交通运营管理专业

专

业

英

语

朱海燕

何静

上海工程技术大学

城市轨道交通学院

2009

年

1

月

List

List

Chapter 1: Development of Urban Rail Transit Speeds up in China

........... 3

Chapter 2 Rapid Transit

............................... ............................................ 12

Chapter

3

RAIL TRANSIT IN NORTH

AMERICA

............................. 23

Chapter 4 The Railroad Track.................................... ...............................

40

Chapter 5 General Vehicle

Description

.

........................................... ......... 45

Chapter

6

A

TP Transmission and Moving Block

................................... 53

Chapter

7

Control of Railway Operation

............................................. 62

Chapter

8

Train Station Passenger Flow

Study

...................................... 74

Chapter

9

Metrocard Fare

Incentives

.

< p>
............................................ ........ 81

Chapter 10 Audible Information Design in the New York City Subway ...

86

2

Chapter 1: Development of Urban Rail Transit Speeds up in China

With the development of urban rail transit, on the one hand, it is promoting the process

of

urban

modernization,

alleviating

congested

traffic

in

cities,

and

narrowing

the

distance

between time and space. On the other hand, it changes the way people travel, accelerates the

pace of their life and work, and affects the quality of life.

The

state

of

urban

rail

transit

reflects

a

country's

comprehensive

strength

and

is

a

symbol

of

a city's

modernization

level.

At

present,

rail

transit

system

is

available

in

135

cities in nearly 40 countries and regions. In cosmopolitan cities, accounting for a proportion

of 60 per cent - 80 per cent, rail transit has become the leading means of transportation in

these

cities.

Yet

so

far, in

Beijing,

Shanghai, Tianjin

and

Guangzhou,

etc.,

rail

transit

accounts for less than 10 percent in the cities total traffic capacity.

Urban

rail

transit

offers

comprehensive

advantages,

like

small

land

occupation,

large

traffic volume,

high

speed,

non-pollution,

low energy consumption,

high

safety

and

great

comfort. With most facilities being installed underground and the operation going on

underground,

subways

require very limited

occupation

of

land,

and

do not

compete

with

other means of transportation for space. Urban light rail, trolley bus as well as suburban rail

and magnetic suspension train are basically railways, which makes it possible to make the

most of land resources.

Urban

rail

transit

system

offers

immense

transport

capacity.

During

rush

hours,

the

maximum unidirectional transport capacity may reach up to 60, 000- 80, 000 person- times

per hour, which is unmatchable to other means of transportation. The hourly traveling speed

of

rail

transit

generally

exceeds 70

kilometers-100

kilometers,

offering

high

punctuality.

Moreover,

mostly

being

hauled

by

electric locomotives,

rail

transit

requires

low

energy

consumption,

and

it

causes

little

pollution

to cities. Therefore,

it

is

called

< p>
transportation

From a macro perspective, urban rail transit plays an important role in improving the

structure of urban transport, alleviating urban ground traffic congestion, and promoting the

utilization efficiency of urban land.

Nevertheless, compared with other means of transportation, rail transit has some

drawbacks, like long construction cycle, heavy initial investment, slow withdrawal of funds

and

poor

economic benefits

in

operation.

For

example,

currently

the

building

of

subway

costs some RMB500 million-700 million per kilometer; urban light

rail

and magnetic

suspension train, RMB200 million-300 million; trolley bus and suburban rail, about

RMB100 million.

In China, rail transit dates back to the late 1960s, when the first subway was built in

3

Beijing. That was nearly one century later than developed countries in the West. However,

since it made its debut, urban rail transit has helped ease the immense pressure caused by

urban

traffic congestion

and

brought

great

convenience

and

comfort

to

passengers.

Take

Beijing

for

example.

Currently,

subways

provide

a

transport

volume

of approximately 1.5

million

person-times

per

day. Without

subways,

the

traffic

congestion

in

this

city

would

simply be inconceivable.

At present, rail transit has evolved from the startup stage to a period of stable,

sustainable and

orderly development

in this country. In China

(excluding Hong Kong

and

Taiwan),

the

length

of

subways

completed

totals

193

kilometers;

project

urban

rail

under

construction,

334

kilometers; planned

urban rail,

420

kilometers.

Among

big

cities

with a

population

of

over

2

million,

those

that

already

have

or

are

building

urban

rail

transit

include Beijing,

Tianjin, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Dalian, Shenzhen, Wuhan, Nanjing,

Chongqing and Changchun. Now, seven cities have announced or are still working on their

plan to build rail

transit:

Chengdu, Hangzhou, Shenyang, Xi'an, Harbin, Qingdao and

Suzhou.

According to plan, by 2008, there will be thirteen rail transit lines and two spur lines in

Beijing, with

a

total

length

of

408.2

kilometers.

In

Shanghai,

there

will be

21

rail

transit

lines, totaling more than 500 kilometers in length. During the Tenth Five-Year Plan period,

the total length will hit 780 kilometers. In Tianjin, there will be four subway lines, totaling

106

kilometers. That, coupled with

50 kilometers of

suburban light

rail

and one loop

subway 71-kilometers

set

aside,

will

bring

the

total

length to 227

kilometers.

Meanwhile,

there will be seven rail transit lines totaling 206.48 kilometers in Guangzhou, and seven rail

transit

lines

totaling

263.1 kilometers

in

Nanjing.

With

other

cities'

planning

taken

into

account,

the

total

length

of

rail

transit lines

will

come

to

some

2,

200

kilometers

in

this

country.

At

present,

the

constraints

to

the

development

of

rail

transit

in

China

mainly

lie

in

three aspects:

First, there is severe shortage of construction funds. According to the foregoing

planning, it is necessary to invest in approximately RMB300 billion. Projects to be

completed by 2006 alone

require

more

than RMB150 billion. Furthermore, in most cases,

funds

come from

investments

of the central and local governments as

well as

bank

loans.

Still a developing country as it is, China has very limited financial strength.

Second, as rail transit is demanding on technical standard, some key technical facilities

at

low

ratio of

home

mading

at

present

largely

rely

on

imports.

Thus,

construction

cost

remains hig

h

due to the import of large quantity of technolog

y

and equipment.

Third, in most cases, rail transit operates at a loss in China. That aggregates the central

4

and local governments' financial burdens, which, in return, checks the development of rail

transit to some extent.

For

this

reason,

China

formulated

the

guideline

of

what

the

strength

allows,

implementing rules-based management and pursuing stable development

development of rail transit, it is required that homemade equipment should take up at least

70

per

cent.

Meanwhile,

it

is

essential

to

ensure

that

development

of

rail

transit

suits

the

pace

of

economic

development

in

the

cities

and

prevent

blind

development

and

irrational

attempts to advance forward.

Railway Terms and New Words

urban

adj.

城市的

,

市内的

,

urban rail t ransit

（

URT

）城市轨道交通

alleviate

vt.

减轻

congested

adj.

拥挤的，

congest

vt.

，

congestion

n.

accelerate

v.

加速

,

促进

comprehensive

adj.

全面的，广泛的

cosmopolitan

adj.

世界性的，全球（各地）的

proportion

n.

比例

,

均衡

,

面积

,

部分

underground

adj.

地下的

,

地面下的

,

秘密的

n. [

英

]

地铁

adv.

秘密地

trolley bus

n.

电车

, (

电车

)

滚轮

,

手推车

,

手摇车

,

台车

magnetic

adj.

磁的

,

有磁性的

,

有吸引力的

suspension

n.

吊

,

悬浮

,

悬浮液

,

暂停

,

中止

,

悬而未决

,

延迟

basically

adv.

基本上

,

主要地

unidirectional

adj.

单向的

,

单向性的

the Tenth Five-Year Plan

第十个五年规划

at a loss

低于成本的

in return

作为报答

compete with

与

…

争夺，

competition

n.

Reading Material

The Rising Motorization of

China

China

’s

motorization

rate has grown in accordance

with

other rapidly

developing

countries, but because of China

’s

high population, the impacts of motorization are

potentially more severe. Figure 1

shows

the exponential

increase

in personal automobile

ownership rates. Currently, there are about seven

personal automobiles

per 1000 people,

5

compared

to

over

700

vehicles

per

1000

people

in

industrialized

nations

like

the

United

States.

This

figure

does

not

include

privately

owned

trucks

or

publicly

owned

vehicles

(including buses and trucks), which increases the number of

automobiles to

about

28

vehicles per 1000 people. If China were to achieve motorization rates comparable to those

of developed countries, the environmental and economic consequences could be disastrous.

By

2020,

the

total

automobile

fleet

(not

including motorcycles)

is

expected

to

grow

by

between three and seven times the current size depending on economic growth rates (NRC

2003).

The

population

distribution

of

China

is

diverse,

with

the

majority

of

the

population

(60%) living in rural areas. However, in the past several decades, the improved economic

situation

of

the

cities

has caused

a

rapid

urban

in-migration.

This

trend

has

resulted

in

a

nearly three-fold increase in urban development and density in the last decade as displayed

in Figure 2. Much of this development is not necessarily representative of sustainable transit

and

pedestrian

oriented

growth.

Although

this

new development

is

very

dense,

low

land

cost at the periphery cause developers to build spatially separated housing and commercial

developments with few transit

connections to

the urban center (Gaukenheimer 1996).

6

The western provinces are the most sparsely populated with the largest urban

population centers

located

in

provinces

along

the

eastern

coast,

in

metropolises

such

as

Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou. These cities have been experiencing high motorization

rates partially

because

of their higher incomes, but

non-motorized modes still capture

approximately 70% of the work trip commutes in these cities, while the personal

automobile

only

accounts

for

7%

(Hu

2003).

Much

of

the

transportation

and

planning

research has been centered on these cities, although they constitute a rather small portion of

the entire

population. Figure

3 shows the amount of

cities of different

sizes and the

approximate

total population

of people

living

in cities

of different size.

Two thirds

of the

urban population

resides

in

cities

with

populations

between

0.5

and

2

million,

indicating

that

much

of the

planning and transportation

research

related to

China is focusing on

problems that might not be relevant or applicable to the majority of the Chinese population.

Economically, most of these cities are years or decades behind the more developed Chinese

cities

and

have

not

developed many

of

the

transportation problems

Beijing,

Shanghai

and

Guangzhou have. Focusing planning efforts in these cities could have much greater returns.

The Chinese economy has been growing at a phenomenal rate for the past decade and

has doubled in size in the last nine years. In fact, the growth rate is so fast that the Chinese

government

is

imposing several

measures

to

try

to

control

growth

to

keep

it

at

a

more

sustainable level (Economist 2004). China

’s

growth has largely been a result of investment

in

a

few

“

pilla

r”

industries.

The

highest growing

pillar industries

are:

electronic

manufacturing, automobiles, electric power, and steel. The eighth five-year plan

(1991-1995) designated the automobile industry as one of the pillar industries of economic

development. This policy statement encourages the growth of an indigenous auto industry

that will be able to supply a large portion of its domestic demand and create a strong export

market.

It

calls

for

the

consolidation

of

over

one

hundred

companies

into

3

or

4

large

7

competitive

companies.

The

auto

industry

accounts

for

20%

of

Shanghai

’s

gross

regional

product (Hook

2002).

However,

with

China

’s

entry

into

the

World

Trade

Organization

(WTO) in 2001, they must reduce tariffs on imported automobiles and can no longer protect

their market. This has spurred development of the domestic automobile industry to a level

that can compete with international competitors. One of the greatest challenges of cities in

China

is

controlling

automobile

ownership growth,

while

fostering

the

national

policy

of

growing the automobile industry.

Costs and Benefits of Motorization

The cost and benefit implications for Chinese motorization are enormous. Motorization

is a major economic growth strategy. The government has adopted a strategy of developing

an

automobile manufacturing

industry.

Automobiles

can

also

provide

indirect

economic

benefits

of

decreased

travel time,

improved

accessibility

to

goods

and

services,

and

new

found

mobility

that

will

cause

people

to

travel

more

and

achieve

a

more

mobile

lifestyle

that they would not have otherwise been able to experience.

The potential costs are enormous. The United States has the highest motorization rate

in the world and perhaps the most mature automobile industry. However, the US has also

experienced

very

high costs

associated

with

our

level

of

motorization.

The

most

obvious

and potentially most severe

cost is the

air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions

associated with the automobile. The US emits 26% of the global greenhouse gases but only

constitutes 5% of the worl

d’s

population. China

’

s policy goal is to achieve Euro II

emissions standards by 2005 (about a decade behind Europe) and be internationally

compliant with Euro IV standards by 2010. This is a very ambitious goal, but it is necessary

if

Chinese

automakers

want

to

compete

in

the

international

market

and

improve

the

air

quality in their own country. With the three to seven-fold growth rate anticipated in the next

15 years, CO

2

emissions will likely quadruple, CO, and hydrocarbons will likely triple, and

NO

x

and particulate matter will likely stay the same. This assumes an aggressive emissions

regulation

strategy and a

modest

economic

growth

rate

(NRC

2003).

The

US

EPA

has

identified

all

of

these

emissions as

having

serious

health

effects

at

high

concentrations.

From

a

global perspective,

China

’s

motorization

could

have

adverse

effects

on the

global

climate. Currently, the transportation sector accounts for 17% of the greenhouse emissions,

but this proportion could increase significantly if the motorization trends continue. China is

also

the

second

highest

consumer

of

oil

in

the

world

(behind

the

United

States).

If China

motorizes as rapidly as expected, the increase demand could cause the global price of fuel

to skyrocket.

8

Another major issue associated with increased motorization is changes in land use. As

incomes increase, people desire more living space, which reduces density and encourages

expansion

at

the urban fringe.

Figure

4

shows

the

growth

of

residential

floor

space

per

capita,

which

is

a

force toward

lower

density.

This

requires

more

auto

oriented

transportation infrastructure

as well

as more land for development. In

Shanghai,

approximately 10% of the land area is devoted to transportation infrastructure (compared to

20-25%

in Europe) (Shen 1997). Because of the built environment, most of the new

transportation infrastructure is expanding at the periphery, encouraging auto oriented

developments. An increasingly open housing market, where people choose where to live is

also creating a spatial jobs- housing imbalance that did not previously exist, when industry

provided housing for its employees adjacent to their plants. This greatly increases the cost

of

transportation

for

Chinese households

as

indicated

by

Figure

5.

The

proportion

of

a

households

income

spent

on

transportation has

increases

ten

fold

in

less

than

15

years.

Another major consideration is the conservation of agricultural land. China currently has a

very low amount of agricultural land per capita (World Bank 2001)and cannot afford to lose

more through urban expansion (Franke 1997).

Additional costs include accidents and injuries associated with motorization. Currently,

the fatality rate (deaths per mile of travel) is 30 times that of the United States, with over

100,000 deaths per

year since 2001, many of which are pedestrians

and bicyclists

(NRC

2003, Hook 2002b). Additionally equity issues must be considered, specifically the

dislocation of the poor. Even with the high projected growth rates in automobile ownership,

most Chinese will not own vehicles, so alternative modes must be supplied that can serve

the increasing spatial separation between origins and destinations. The cost of the required

infrastructure

will

be

enormous and the government

will

likely have

to

provide

more

subsidies to the transportation sector, potentially restricting its investment in other sectors.

9

Causes of Motorization

The

primary

impetus

for

the

motorization

of China

has

been

the

rapid

growth

of

the

economy. With

a

rise

in the

economic

growth of

a

country

comes

a

desire

and means

to

become more motorized. Motorization rates are associated with a country

’s

gross domestic

product (GDP). Countries with low GDP (below $$800) generally have a high proportion of

trucks and buses in their vehicle fleets. As GDP increases up to about $$10,000, the share of

personal

automobiles

increases

drastically

until

a

saturation

level

is

reached

(NRC

2003).

China

’s

GDP

has

been

increasing

by

more

than

8%

annually for

over

a

decade.

A

large

proportion of upper income people can now afford the luxury of the automobile.

Kenworthy

et.

al.

(1999)

argue

that,

while

GDP

plays

an

important

role,

there

are

many other factors that likely influence motorization rates. By comparing cities with similar

GDP and very different transportation energy use, they conclude that land use is a primary

factor influencing

energy

use

and thus

motorization.

Additionally

demand

management

schemes can limit the adverse effect of motorization in China. Currently China

’s

regulatory

structure is weak and inconsistent. Some cities have effectively provided competitive transit

alternatives

and

limited

outward

expansion

(Joos

2000).

Others have

fully

embraced

the

automobile, pushing many other modes to the side.

Railway Terms and New Words

motorization

exponential

diverse

migration

metropolis

n.

adj.

adj.

n.

n.

动力化

,

摩托化

指数的

,

幂数的

不同的

,

变化多的

移民

,

移植

,

移往

,

移动

大城市

Chicago, the metropolis of the Midwest.

10

skyrocket

v.

fringe

n.

periphery

n.

fatality

n.

dislocation

n.

saturation

n.

in accordance with

per capita

暴涨，猛涨迅速和突然地升高或使升高：

边缘

,

须边

,

刘海

外围

命运决定的事物

,

不幸

,

灾祸

,

天命

混乱

,

断层

,

脱臼

饱和

(

状态

),

浸润

,

浸透，饱和度

与

...

一致

,

依照

按人口平均计算

11

Chapter 2 Rapid Transit

A rapid

transit, underground, subway, elevated,

or metro system

is a

railway system,

generally in an urban area, that generally has high capacity and frequency, with large trains

and total or near total grade separation from other traffic.

Definitions and Nomenclature

There

is

no single

term

in English that all speakers

would use

for all rapid transit

or

metro systems. This fact reflects variations not only in national and regional usage, but in

what characteristics are considered essential.

One definition of a metro system is as follows; an urban, electric mass transit railway

system totally independent from other traffic with high service frequency.

But those who prefer the American term

additionally specify

that

the

tracks

and

stations

must be

located below

street

level so

that

pedestrians

and road users

see the street exactly as

it would be without the subway;

or at

least

that

this

must

be

true

for the

most

important,

central

parts

of

the

system.

On

the

contrary, those who prefer the American

regard

this

as

a

less

important

characteristic

and

are pleased

to

include

systems

that

are

completely elevated or

at ground

level (

at

grade) as

long

as

the

other criteria

are

met.

A

rapid transit system that is generally above street level may be called an

(often shortened to el or, in Chicago,

entire system, in others only to those parts that actually are underground; and analogously

for

Germanic languages usually use names meaning

Train Size and Motive Power

Some urban rail lines are built to the full size of main-line railways; others use smaller

tunnels, limiting the size and sometimes the shape of the trains (in the London Underground

the

informal

term tube train

is

commonly

used).

Some

lines

use

light

rail

rolling

stock,

perhaps surface cars merely routed into a tunnel for all or part of their route. In many cities,

such as London and Boston's MB- TA, lines using different types of vehicles are organized

into a single unified system.

Although the initial lines of what became the London Underground used steam engines,

most

metro

trains,

both

now

and

historically,

are

electric

multiple

units,

with steel wheels

running on two steel rails. Power is usually supplied by means of a single live third rail (as

in New York) at 600 to 750 volts, but some systems use two live rails (noticeably London)

and

thus

eliminate

the

return

current

from

the

running

rails.

Overhead

wires,

allowing

12

higher voltages, are more likely to be used on metro systems without much length in tunnel,

as in Amsterdam; but they also exist on some that are underground, as in Madrid. Boston's

Green Line trains derive power from an overhead wire, both while traveling in a tunnel in

the central city and at street level in the suburban areas.

Systems usually use DC power instead of AC, even if this requires large rectifiers for

the

power supply.

DC

motors

were

formerly

more

efficient

for

railway

applications,

and

once a DC system is in place, converting it to AC is usually considered too large a project to

contemplate.

Tracks

Most

rapid

transit

systems

use

conventional

railway

tracks,

though

since

tracks

in

subway tunnels are not exposed to wet weather, they are often fixed to the floor instead of

resting

on

ballast. The

rapid

transit

system

in

San

Diego,

California

operates

tracks

on

former railroad rights of way that were acquired by the governing entity.

Another technology using rubber tires on narrow concrete or steel railways was

pioneered on the

Paris

M6tro,

and

the

first

complete

system

to

use

it

was

in

Montreal.

Additional

horizontal

wheels

are

required

for

guidance,

and

a

conventional

track

is

often

provided in case of flat tires and for switching. Advocates of this system note that it is much

quieter

than

conventional

steel-wheeled

trains, and

allows

for

greater

inclines

given

the

increased traction allowed by the rubber tires.

Some cities with steep hills incorporate mountain railway technologies into their

metros.

The Lyon

Metro

includes

a

section

of

rack

(cog)

railway,

while

the

Carmelit

in

Haifa is an underground funicular.

For

elevated

lines,

still

another

alternative

is

the

monorail.

Supported

or

monorails, with a single rail below the train, include the Tokyo Monorail; the Schwebebahn

in Wuppertal is a suspended monorail, where the train body hangs below the wheels and rail.

Monorails have never gained wide acceptance except for Japan, although Seattle has a short

one,

which it

hopes

to replace with a

new,

larger system,

and

one

has

lately been built

in

Las Vegas. One of the first monorail systems in the United States was installed at

Anaheim's Disneyland in 1959 and connects the amusement park to a nearby hotel.

Disneyland's builder, animator and filmmaker Walt Disney, offered to build a similar

system between Anaheim and Los Angeles.

Crew Size and Automation

Early underground trains often carried an attendant on each car to operate the doors or

gales,

in addition

to

a

driver.

The

introduction

of

powered

doors

around

1920

permitted

crew sizes to be decreased, and trains in many cities are now operated by a single person.

Where the operator would not be able to see the whole side of the train to tell whether the

13

doors can be safely closed, mirrors or closed-circuit TV monitors are often provided for that

purpose.

An alternative to human drivers became available in the 1960s, as automated systems

were developed

that could

start

a

train,

accelerate

to the

correct

speed,

and

stop

automatically

at

the next

station,

also

taking

into

account

the

information

that

a

human

driver would obtain from lineside or cab signals. The first complete line to use this

technology was London's Victoria Line, in 1968. In usual operation the one crew member

sits

in

the

driver's

position

at

the

front,

but

just closes

the

doors at

each

station; the

train

then starts automatically. This style of system has become widespread. A variant is seen on

London's

Docklands

Light

Railway,

opened

in

1987,

where

the

service agent

(formerly

would. The same technology would have allowed trains to operate completely automatically

with no crew, just as

most elevators do; and as the cost of automation has decreased, this

has become financially attractive. But a countervailing argument is that of possible

emergency

situations. A

crew member on

board the

train

may

be

able

to

prevent

the

emergency

in the

first

place,

drive

a

partly

failed

train

to

the

next

station,

assist

with

an

evacuation if needed, or call for the correct emergency services (police, fire, or ambulance)

and help direct them.

In some cities the same reasons are considered to justify a crew of two instead of one;

one

person drives

from

the

front

of

the

train,

while

the

other

operates

the

doors

from

a

position farther back, and is more conveniently able to help passengers in the rear cars. The

crew

members

may exchange

roles

on

the

reverse

trip

( as

in Toronto)

or not (as

in New

York ) .

Completely

crewless

trains

are

more

accepted

on

newer

systems

where

there

are

no

existing crews to be removed, and especially on light rail lines. Thus the first such system

was

the

VAL (automated

light

vehicle)

of

Lille,

France,

inaugurated

in

1983.

Additional

VAL lines

have been built in other cities. In Canada, the Vancouver Sky Train carries

no

crew members, while Toronto's Scarborough RT, opening the same year (1985) with

otherwise similar trains, uses human operators.

These systems generally use platform- edge doors (PEDs) , in order to improve safety

and ensure passenger confidence,

but this is not universal;

for example,

the

Vancouver

SkyTrain does not ( And on the contrary, some lines which retain drivers, however, still use

PEDs, noticeably

London'

s Jubilee

Line

Extension.

MTR of

Hong Kong also

uses

platform screen doors, the first to install PSDs on an already operating system. )

With regard to larger trains, the Paris Metro has human drivers on most lines, but runs

crewless trains on its newest line, Line 14, which opened in 1998. Singapore's North East

14

MRT Line (2003) claims to be the world' s first completely automated underground urban

heavy rail line. The Disneyland Resort Line of Hong Kong MTR is also automated.

Tunnel Construction

The

construction

of

an

underground

metro

is

an

expensive

project,

often

carried

out

over many years. There are several different methods of building underground lines.

In

one

usual

method,

known

as

cut-and-cover,

the

city

streets

are

excavated

and

a

tunnel structure strong enough to support the road above is built at the trench, which is then

filled

in

and

the roadway

rebuilt.

This

method

often

involves

extensive

relocation

of

the

utilities

usually buried

not

for

below

city streets

—

especially power

and

telephone

wiring,

water

and

gas

mains,

and

sewers.

The

structures

are

generally

made

of

concrete,

perhaps

with

structural

columns

of

steel;

in

the

oldest

systems,

brick

and

cast

iron

were

used.

Cut- and-cover construction can take so long that it is often necessary to build a temporary

roadbed while construction is going on underneath in order to avoid closing main streets for

long periods of time; in Toronto, a temporary surface on Yonge Street supported cars and

streetcar tracks for several years while the Yonge subway was built.

Some

American

cities,

like

Newark,

Cincinnati

and

Rochester,

were

originally

built

around canals. When the railways took the place of canals, they were able to bury a subway

in the

disused canal's trench, without rerouting other utilities, or acquiring a

right of way

piecemeal.

Another common way is to start with a vertical shaft and then dig the tunnels

horizontally from there, often with a tunneling shield, thus avoiding almost any disturbance

to existing streets, buildings, and utilities. But problems with ground water are more likely,

and tunneling through native bedrock may require blasting. (The first city to extensively use

deep

tunneling

was

London,

where

a

thick

sedimentary

layer

of

clay

largely

avoids

both

problems. ) The confined space in the tunnel also restricts the machinery that can be used,

but specialised tunnel-boring machines are

now available

to overcome this challenge. One

disadvantage

with

this, nevertheless, is

that

the

cost

of

tunneling is much

higher than

building systems cut-and-cover, at-grade or elevated. Early tunnelling machines could not

make

tunnels

large

enough

for

conventional

railway

equipment,

necessitating

special

low

round trains, such as are still used by most of the London Underground, which cannot fix

air conditioning on most of its lines because the amount of empty space between the trains

and tunnel walls is so small.

The deepest metro system in the world was built in St.

Petersburg, Russia.

In

this

city, built ii the marshland, stable soil starts more than 50 meter deep.

Above that level the

soil is mostly made up of water- bearing finely dispersed sand. As a result of this, only three

stations out of nearly 60 are built near the ground level and three more above the ground.

15

Some stations and tunnels lie as deep as 100-120 meters below the surface.

One

advantage

of

deep

tunnels

is

that

they

can

dip

in

a

basin-like

profile

between

stations, without incurring significant

extra

costs owing to having to

dig deeper. This

technique, also referred to as putting stations

as they accelerate from one station and brake at the next. It was used as early as 1890 on

parts of the City and South London Railway, and has been used many times since.

Railway Terms and New Words

nomenclature

analogous

rolling stock

traction

countervail

evacuate

inaugurate

excavated

n.

adj.

n.

n.

v.

v.

vt.

v.

命名法

,

术语

类似的

,

相似的

,

可比拟的

全部车辆

牵引

补偿

,

抵销

疏散

,

举行就职典礼

,

创新

,

开辟

,

举行开幕

< br>(

落成、成立

)

典礼

< p>
.

挖掘

,

开凿

,

挖出

,

挖空

Reading Material

Light

Rail

Light rail or light rail transit (LRT) is a particular class of urban and suburban

passenger railway that uses equipment and infrastructure that is generally less massive than

that used for rapid transit systems, with modern light rail vehicles usually running along the

system.

Light rail is the successor term to streetcar, trolley and tram in many locales, although

the

term is most

consistently

applied to modern tram or trolley operations employing

features

more

generally associated

with

metro

or

subway

operations,

including

exclusive

rights-of-way, multiple unit train configuration and signal control of operations.

The term light rail is derived from the British English term light railway long used to

distinguish

tram

operations

from

steam

railway

lines,

and

also

from

its

usually

lighter

infrastructure.

Light

rail

systems

are

almost

universally

operated

by

electricity

delivered

through

overhead lines, though several systems are powered through different means, such as the

JFK Airtrain, which uses a standard third rail for its electrical power, and trams in Bordeaux

16

which use a special third-rail configuration in which the rail is only powered while a tram is

on top of it. A few unusual systems like the River Line in New Jersey and the 0-Train in

Ottawa use diesel-powered trains, though this is sometimes intended as an interim measure

until the funds to install electric power become available.

Definition

Most rail technologies, including high-speed, freight, commuter/regional, and

metro/subway

are

considered

to

be

rail

in

comparison.

A

few

systems

such

as

people movers and personal rapid transit could be considered as even

terms

of how

many passengers

are moved per vehicle and the speed at which they travel.

Monorails

are

also

considered

to

be

a

separate

technology.

Light

rail

systems

can

handle

steeper

inclines

than

heavy rail,

and curves

sharp

enough to fit within street

intersections.

They are generally built in urban areas, providing frequent service with small, light trains or

single cars.

The

most

difficult

distinction

to

draw

is

that

between

light

rail

and

streetcar

or

tram

systems. There is a significant amount of overlap between the technologies, and it is usual

to classify streetcars/trams as a subtype of light rail instead of as a distinct type of

transportation. The two common versions are:

1. The traditional type, where the tracks and trains run along the streets and share space

with road traffic. Stops

tend to be very frequent, but little effort is

made to set up special

stations. Because space is shared, the tracks are not usually visible.

2. A more modern variation, where the trains tend to run along their own right-of-way

and are of-ten separated from road traffic. Stops are usually less frequent, and the vehicles

are

often got

on

from a

platform.

Tracks are

highly

visible,

and in some cases

significant

effort

is

used

to

keep

traffic away

through

the

use

of

special

signaling

and

even

grade

crossings with gate arms. At the highest degree of separation, it can be difficult to draw the

line

between

light

rail

and

metros,

as

in

the

case

of London's

Docklands

Light

Railway,

which would likely not be considered

Many light rail systems have a combination of the two, with both on road and off road

sections. In some countries, only the latter is described as light rail. In those places, trams

running

on

mixed

right

of

way

are

not

regarded

as

light

rail,

but

considered

distinctly

as

streetcars or trams.

Light rail is usually powered by electricity, generally by means of overhead wires, but

sometimes by

a

live

rail,

also

called

third

rail

(a

high

voltage

bar

alongside

the

track)

,

requiring safety measures and warnings to the public not to touch it. In some cases,

especially when initial funds are limited, diesel-powered versions have been used, but it is

not

a

preferred

option.

Some

systems,

such

as

the

JFK

Airtrain

in

New

York

City,

are

17

automatic

without

a

driver;

however,

such

systems

are

not

what

is

usually

thought

of

as

light rail. Automatic

operation is

more

common in smaller

people

mover

systems

than in

light rail systems, where the possibility of grade crossings and street running make

driverless operation of the latter inappropriate.

Advantages of light rail

Light rail systems are usually cheaper to build than heavy rail, since the infrastructure

does not need

to

be

considerable, and

tunnels are

usually

not

required as

most

metro

systems. In addition, the ability to handle sharp curves and steep gradients can reduce the

amount of work required.

Traditional streetcar systems and also newer light rail systems are used in many cities

around

the world

because

they

generally

can

carry

a

larger

number

of

people

than

any

bus- based public transport system. They are also cleaner, quieter, more comfortable, and in

many cases faster than buses. In an emergency, light rail trains are easier to evacuate than

monorail or elevated rapid rail trains.

Many modern light rail projects

re-use parts

of old rail networks, such as abandoned

industrial rail lines.

Disadvantages of light rail

Like all modes of rail transport, light rail tends to be safest when operating in

dedicated right-of- way with complete grade separations. Nevertheless, grade separations are

not always financially or physically feasible.

In

California,

the

development

of

light

rail

systems

in

Los

Angeles

and

San

Jose

caused

a high

rate

of

collisions

between

automobiles

and

trolleys

during

the

1990s.

The

most common cause

was

that many senior

citizens

were

unfamiliar

with

light rail trolleys

and often mistook the trolley

for left-turn signal lights. They would then

make a left turn, right into the path of a trolley. The same high crash rate problem existed

when the METRORail was first set up in Houston, Texas.

To reduce such collisions, brighter lights and louder warning klaxons have been added

to many at-grade crossings. However, consequently, many people do not like to live next to

light

rail

crossings because

the

noise

makes

them

impossible

to

sleep.

A

more

effective

means of reducing or pre venting automobile-light rail collisions has been the installation of

quad crossing gates at gate crossings. These gates block both lanes of a street when the gate

closes. These prevent those driving auto mobiles from driving around the gates when they

are lowered.

Monorail

supporters

like

to

point

out

that

light

rail

trolleys

are

heavier

per pound

of

cargo came than heavy rail cars or monorail cars, because they must be designed to avoid

collisions with automobiles.

18

Monorail

A

monorail

is

a

metro

or

railroad

with

a

track

consisting

of

a

single

rail

(in

fact

a

beam)

,

in contrast

to

the

traditional

track

with

two

parallel

rails.

Monorail

vehicles

are

wider than the beam they run on.

Types and Technical Aspects

There

are

two

major

types

of

monorail

systems.

In

suspended

monorails,

the

train

is

located under the track, suspended from above. In the more popular straddle-beam monorail,

the train straddles the rail, covering it on the sides. The straddle-beam style was popularized

by ALWEG. There is also a form of suspended monorail developed by SAFEGE that places

the wheels inside the rail.

Modern monorails are

powered

by electric motors

and

usually

have

tires,

rather than

metal wheels which

are

found

on

subway,

streetcar

(tram)

,

and

light

rail

trains.

These

wheels roll along the top and sides of the rail to propel and stabilize the train. Most modern

monorail

systems

use switches to

move

cars

between

multiple

lines

or

permit

two-way

travel.

Some

early

monorail systems

—

noticeably

the

suspended

monorail

of

Wuppertal

(Germany) , dating from 1901 and still in operation

—

have a design that makes it difficult to

switch from one line to another. This limitation of the Wuppertal monorail is still mentioned

at times in discussions of monorails in spite of the fact for both the suspended and

straddle-beam type monorails the problem has been overcome.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The

main

advantage

of

monorails

over

conventional

rail

systems

is

that

they

require

minimal

space,

both

horizontally

and

vertically.

The

width

required

is

determined

by

the

monorail vehicle, not the track, and monorail systems are usually elevated, requiring only a

minimal footprint for support pillars.

Owing

to

a

smaller

footprint

they

are

more

attractive

than

conventional

elevated

rail

lines and visually block only a minimal amount of sky.

They are quieter, since modern monorails use rubber wheels on a concrete track.

Monorails can climb, descend and turn faster than most conventional rail systems.

Monorails are safer than many forms

of at-grade

transportation.

As monorail wraps

around its track and therefore cannot derail and unlike a light rail system, there is minimal

risk of colliding with traffic or pedestrians.

I hey cost less to construct and maintain, in particular when compared to underground

metro systems.

Monorails need their own track.

19

Although a monorail's footprint is less than an elevated conventional rail system , it is

larger than an underground system 's.

A

monorail

switch

by

its

very design

will

leave

one

track

hanging

in

mid-air at

any

stated time. Unlike in the case of regular rail switches, coming from this

track may cause

derailing , with the additional risk of falling several meters to the ground.

Most countries (except Japan) do not have standardized beam specifications for

monorails, so most tend to be proprietary systems.

In an emergency, passengers cannot exit at once because the monorail vehicle

generally sits on top of its rail and there is no ledge or railing to stand on. They must wait

until a fire engine or a cherry picker comes to the rescue. If the monorail vehicle is on fire

and

rapidly

filling

with

smoke,

the passengers

may

face

an

unpleasant

choice

between

jumping to the ground (and possibly breaking bones in the process) or staying in the vehicle

and risking suffocation. Newer monorail systems resolve this by building emergency

walkways alongside the whole track (although this reduces the advantage of visually

blocking only a minimal amount of sky) .

There are also some remaining concerns over the speed and capacity of monorails.

A Brief History of Magnetic Levitation

In

the

early

1900s,

Emile

Bachelet

first

conceived

of

a

magnetic

suspension

using

repulsive forces generated by alternating currents. Bachelet's ideas for EDS remained

dormant

until

the 1960s when

superconducting

magnets

became

available,

because

his

concept used too much power for conventional conductors. In 1922, Hermann Kemper in

Germany

pioneered

attractive-mode

(EMS) Maglev

and

received

a

patent

for

magnetic

levitation of trains in 1934. In 1939-43, the Germans first worked on a real train at the ATE

in

Goettingen. The

basic

design for pratical

attractive-mode maglev was presented by

Kemper in 1953. The Transrapid (TR01) was built in 1969.

Maglev

development

in

the

U.S.

began

as

a

result

of

the

the

High-Speed

Ground

Transportation (HSGT) Act of 1965. This act authorized Federal funduing for HSGT

projects, including

rail,

air

cushion

vehicles,

and

Maglev.

This

government

largesse

gave

the U.S. researchers an early advantage

over their

foreign counterparts. Americans

pioneered

the

concept

of

superconducting

magnetic

levitation

(EDS,)

and

they

dominated

early experimental research. As early as 1963, James Powell and Gordon Danby of

Brookhaven National Laboratory realized that superconductivity could get around the

problems of Bachelet's earlier concepts. In 1966, Powell and Danby presented their Maglev

concept of using superconducting magnets in a vehicle and discrete coils on a guideway.

20

Powell and Danby were awarded a patent in 1968, and their work was eventually adopted

by the Japanese for use in their system. Powell and Danby were awarded the 2000

Benjamin Franklin Medal in Engineering by the Franklin Institute for their work on EDS

Maglev.

In 1969, groups

from Stanford, Atomics

International and Sandia developed a

continuous-sheet

guideway

(CSG)

concept.

In

this

system,

the

moving

magnetic

fields

of

the

vehicle

magnets

induce

currents

in

a

continuous

sheet

of

conducting

material

such

as

aluminum.

Several

groups,

including

MIT

(Kolm

and

Thornton,

MIT,

1972,)

built

1/25th

scale models and tested them at speeds up to 27 m/s (97.2 km/h.) The CSG concept is alive

and well in 2001 with the Magplane. EDS systems were also being developed in the US in

the early

'70s,

including

work by Rohr,

Boeing,

and

Carnegie-Mellon University.

Maglev

research in the US came to a screeching halt in 1975 when the Federal government cut off

the funds to HGST research.

Most

Maglev

systems

designed

and

tested

to

date

have

been

the

EMS

Maglev

(also

called

guideway above). Examples include Transrapid, Rotem and HSST.

The

Japanese

have

been

working

on

the

Chuo

Shinkansen

EDS

Maglev

project

for

many years. They have built a 11.4m (18.3km) test track called the Yamanashi Maglev Test

Line. Recently, the train hit 343 mph (550kmph,) a permanent

are

lots of

with

the Japanese

system:

$$148

million/mile, it

uses

cryogenic

magnets,

the

guideway

is

(active

systems

required

to

make

the

train

run,

normal

Japanese

Shinkansen

run

on

rails,)

and

the

guideway

is

shaped.

Because

it

does

not

fit

our

definition

of

a

Maglev

Monorail,

we

will

not cover

this

system

in

the

Technical Pages.

However,

more

information can be

found

online

at the

on

the

following

Japanese EDS system page.

Maglev

2000 of Florida is designing an EDS Maglev

system. James Powell

and

Gordon Danby are on this team, and they were the originators of the EDS concept back in

1966.

Another example of a company working on EDS Maglev is Magplane. Magplane is an

evolution of work done at MIT in the early 70's by Kolm and Thornton (Scientific

American, October 1973.) This system uses a

of a less-complex guideway system vs. the Japanese system. A White Paper is available on

their website outlining this technology.

Inductrack

is

another

type

of

EDS

system

currently

being

developed

and

tested

at

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Physicist Richard F. Post has been working on

this

concept for

a

few

years,

and

the

technology

is

a

spinoff

of

work

done

for

particle

21

accelerators

and

payload

launchers

for

NASA.

The

General

Atomics

team

is

using

the

Halbach concept

on

their

Urban Maglev concept vehicle

(see

General Atomics

papers

on

Maglev Monorail Technical Papers page). Permanent magnets are starting to solve a lot of

the original problems with superconducting magnets and the cryogenic cooling systems: it

doesn't need them!

Railway Terms and New Words

straddle

suffocation

proprietary

alternating

dormant

superconducting

conductor

largesse

in contrast to

at grade

cherry picker

v.

跨骑

straddle-beam monorail

n.

窒息

adj.

所有的

,

私人拥有的

adj.

交互的

adj.

睡眠状态的

,

静止的

,

隐匿的

adj.

[

物

]

超导

(

电

)

的

,

无电阻 率的

,

使用无电阻物质的

n.

导体；导线

n.

慷慨

和

...

形成对比

[

美

]

在同一水平面上

车载式吊车

22

Chapter 3

RAIL TRANSIT IN NORTH AMERICA

OVERVIEW

Rail transit systems

in North America

carry

more than 5 billion passengers

each year.

As of

1995, a total of 53 agencies operated 207 routes of the four major rail transit modes

—

heavy rail,

light

rail, commuter

rail,

and

automated

guideway

transit

—

with

a

total

length

of

5,100

miles

(8,200

kilometers), providing

18

billion

passenger-miles

(29

billion

passenger- kilometers)

of

service

annually. Less common rail modes include monorails, funicular railways (inclined

planes), aerial ropeways, and cable cars. Collectively, as part of public transit operations, these

modes provided approximately 14.4 million annual unlinked passenger trips in 2000.

Rail transit plays a vital role in five metropolitan areas, carrying over 50% of all work trips and,

in three regions, over 70% of all downtown-oriented work trips. Rail transit plays an important

but

lesser

role

in

another

six

regions.

Other

rail

transit

systems

carry

a

smaller

proportion

of

regional trips but

fill other functions,

such as defining corridors and encouraging densification

and positive land-use development.

1. Heavy Rail

Heavy rail transit is by far the predominant urban rail travel mode in North America, in

terms of system size and utilization. Exhibit 1 illustrated the lead heavy rail transit in the United

States has over the other rail modes in both annual passenger trips and annual passenger miles.

Heavy rail transit is characterized by fully grade- separated rights-of-way, high level platforms,

and high-speed, electric multiple-unit cars.

Exhibit 1

Public Transit Ridership in the United States by Mode (2000)

Modal ridership and trip lengths.

The expeditious handling of passengers is enabled through the use of long trains of up to 11

cars running frequently.

Loading and unloading of

passengers

at

stations

is

rapid due to level

access and multiple double-stream doors.

Power is generally collected from a third rail, but can also be received from overhead wires

23

as in Cleveland, the Skokie Swift in Chicago, and a portion of the Blue Line in Boston.

Third-rail power collection, frequent service, and high operating speeds generally necessitate

the use of grade-separated pedestrian and vehicular crossings. A small number of grade

crossings is an unusual feature of the Chicago system.

Exhibit1

Heavy Rail Examples

Status of heavy rail systems.

U.S. and Canadian heavy rail systems generally fall into two groups according to their time of

initial construction.

Pre-war

systems

are

often

characterized

by

high

passenger

densities

and

closely spaced stations, although the postwar systems in Toronto and Montré

al also fall into this

category.

The

newer U.S.

systems

tend

to

place

a

higher value

on

passenger

comfort

and

operating

speed,

as

expressed by

less

crowded

trains

and

a

more

distant

spacing

of

stations,

especially

in

suburban

areas.

Newer systems

also

tend

to

provide

extensive

suburban

park-and-ride facilities.

Some overlap exists between heavy rail, light rail, and AGT.

BART

in

the

San

Francisco

Bay

Area

is

a

prime

example

of

the

latter

category

with

its

fast

trains and provision of upholstered seats. BART station spacing outside downtown San

Francisco and Oakland is great enough to allow the high overall speed required to compete with

the

automobile. Vancouver

’

s SkyTrain and Toronto

’

s Scarborough Rapid Transit lines are

included in the heavy rail category rather than the light rail or automated guideway categories

since they most closely resemble heavy rail transit systems

in operating practices and

right-of-way characteristics.

2

2

Philadelphia

’

s

Norristown

high-speed

line

is

another

illustration

of

the

difficulty

of

characterizing

some

rail

transit

modes.

The

Norristown

line

is

entirely

grade-separated,

uses

24

third

rail,

and

has

high

platforms

(characteristics

often

associated

with

heavy

rail),

but

uses

one-car trains,

makes

many

stops

only

on

demand,

and

has

on-board

fare

collection

(characteristics often associated with light rail). SEPTA and the FTA classify it as heavy rail.

The

high

costs

of

constructing

fully

grade-separated

rights-of- way

(subway

or

elevated)

for

heavy rail transit have limited expansion in recent decades.

Of the U.S. heavy rail systems, the three New York City systems carried two-thirds of all riders

using this mode in 2000. Heavy rail transit

’

s efficiency in moving large volumes of passengers

in densely populated areas is evident in this, the largest metropolitan area in the United States.

Heavy rail transit plays a key role in enabling such dense urban areas to exist. In 1995, 51.9% of

business day travel into Lower Manhattan was by heavy rail transit. During the 7:00 to 10:00

a.m. time period, this share increased to 62.2%.

Complexity of the New York subway.

The New York City subway system is one of the largest and most complex in the world. This

extensive subway system carries almost twice as many riders as does the local bus system. Most

lines are triple or quadruple tracked to allow the operation of express services. A large number

of

junctions

permit

trains to

be

operated

on

a

variety

of

combinations

of

line

segments

to

provide

an

extensive

network

of service.

Exhibit

2

shows

a

diagram

of

the

subway

tracks

in

midtown Manhattan.

Exhibit 2

MTA-NYCT Subway Tracks in Midtown Manhattan

25

Exhibit 3 illustrates

the peak hour and peak 15-minute passenger flow rates for the 15 busiest

heavy rail transit trunk lines in the U.S. and Canada. The graph uses trunks rather than routes in

order

to

group those

services

sharing

tracks

together.

All

the

trunks

listed

are

double

tracked

and have at least one station used by all routes.

When

four-track

lines in

New

York

are

taken into consideration, the

maximum

load is a

combination

of

the Lexington

Avenue Express

and Local

at

63,200

passengers

per

peak

hour

direction, with almost comparable volumes on the combined Queens Boulevard lines at Queens

Plaza. In comparison, the busiest two-track heavy rail line in the world is in Hong Kong, with

84,000 passengers per peak hour direction.

Exhibit 3

Peak Hour and Peak 15-minute Flows for the Busiest 15 U.S. and Canadian Heavy

Rail Transit Trunk Lines (1995)(R25)

26

2. Light Rail Transit

Light rail transit, often known simply as LRT, began as a development of the streetcar to allow

higher speeds

and

increased

capacity.

Light

rail

transit

is

characterized

by

its

versatility

of

operation, as it can operate separated from other traffic below grade, at-grade, or on an elevated

structure, or can operate together with motor vehicles on the surface (Exhibit 4). Service can be

operated

with

single

cars

or multiple-car

trains.

Electric

traction

power

is

obtained

from

an

overhead

wire,

thus

eliminating

the

restrictions

imposed

by

having

a

live

third-rail

at

ground

level. This flexibility helps to keep construction costs low and explains the popularity this mode

has experienced since 1978 when the first of 14 new North American light rail transit systems

was

opened

in

Edmonton.

These

newer

LRT systems

have

adopted

a

much

higher

level

of

segregation from other traffic than earlier systems enjoyed.

A recent trend is the introduction of diesel light rail cars by European manufacturers. Trials of

such cars have generated considerable interest in some areas, given the ease with which diesel

light rail service can be established on existing rail lines. Ottawa opened a 5-mile (8-km) line

connecting two busway stations in 2002. New Jersey Transit is constructing a diesel light rail

line between Trenton and Camden, scheduled to open in 2003. It should be noted that the TRB

Committee on Light Rail Transit

’

s definition of light rail encompasses only electric-powered

lines, and therefore would not consider diesel light rail to be

“

light rail transit.

”

However, the

TCQSM

’

s

capacity

procedures

are

based

primarily

on right-of-way

type

and

secondarily

by

mode. The basic light rail capacity procedures can be applied to diesel light rail, but differences

in vehicle operating characteristics (such as acceleration) would need to be taken into account.

Three major types of light rail operations exist:

?

Light

rail,

with

relatively

frequent

service along

mostly

exclusive

or

segregated

rights-of-way, using articulated cars and up to four-car trains.

27

?

Streetcars,

operating

along

mostly

shared

or

segregated

rights-of-way,

with

one-car

(or

rarely, two-car) trains. Vehicle types and ages can vary greatly.

?

Vintage trolleys

provide mainly tourist- or shopper-oriented service, often at relatively low

frequencies, using either historic vehicles or newer vehicles designed to look like

historic vehicles.

Exhibit 4

Light Rail Examples

As of 2002, there are 27 light rail and streetcar systems and 5 vintage trolley systems operated

by public transit agencies in North America. An additional three light rail, one streetcar, and one

vintage trolley systems will open by 2004.

Light rail passenger volumes.

Exhibit

5

gives

typical

peak

hour

peak

direction

passenger

volumes,

service

frequencies,

and

train lengths for principal U.S.

and Canadian light rail transit lines. Exhibit6 provides an

indication of

the

maximum

peak

passenger

volumes

carried

on

a

number

of

light

rail

systems

for which data are available. The exhibit illustrates the peak passenger volumes carried over the

busiest segment of the LRT system; in many cases, this represents passengers being carried on

more than one route.

28

Some streetcar and light rail lines carried substantially higher passenger flows in the peak years

of

1946-1960.

Post-World

War

II

streetcars

operated

at

as

close as

30-second

headways

both

on-street (Pittsburgh) and

in

tunnels (Philadelphia). Peak

hour passenger flows were

approximately 9,000 persons

per

hour.

San

Francisco

’

s

Market

Street

surface routes

carried

4,900 peak hour one-way passengers per hour before they were placed underground.

Now,

the

observed number of peak hour passengers at the maximum load point

usually reflects demand

rather than

capacity.

Peak

15-minute

volumes

expressed

as

hourly

flow

rates

are

about

15%

higher.

Exhibit 5

Observed U.S. and Canadian LRT Passenger Volumes: Peak Hour at the Peak Point

for Selected Lines (1993-96 Data)

NOTE: In a single hour a route may have different lengths of trains and/or trains with cars of

different lengths or seating configurations. Data represent the average car. In calculating the

passengers per foot of car length, the car length is reduced by 9% to allow for space lost to

driver cabs, stairwells, and other equipment. Data were not available for the heavily used Muni

Metro subway in San Francisco.

Exhibit 6

Peak Hour and Peak 15-Minute Directional Flows for Selected U.S. and Canadian

Light Rail Transit Trunks (1995)

3. Automated Guideway Transit (AGT)

As their name indicates, AGT systems (Exhibit 7) are completely automated (vehicles without

drivers), with personnel limited to a

supervisory role.

Their

automated nature requires

guideways

to

be

fully

separated

from

other

traffic.

Cars

are

generally

small

and

service

is

frequent

—

the name

“

people mover

”

is often applied to these systems,

which can take on the

29

role of horizontal elevators. The technologies used vary widely and include rubber-tired

electrically propelled vehicles, monorails, and cable-hauled vehicles.

AGT status.

Nearly 40 AGT systems are operated in the United States today, with none operating in Canada.

The SkyTrain in Vancouver and the Scarborough RT in Toronto, while automated and sharing

the same basic technology that is used on the Detroit People Mover, have more in common with

heavy rail systems than AGT lines in their service characteristics, ridership patterns, and

operating practices, and so are included in the heavy rail listings.

AGT systems operate in four types of environments:

?

Airports;

?

Institutions (universities, shopping malls, government buildings);

?

Leisure and amusement parks (e.g., Disneyland); and

?

Public transit systems.

Most of these systems are operated by airports or by private entities, especially as

amusement park circulation systems.

Exhibit 7

Automated Guideway Transit Examples

AGT transit services.

There are three public transit AGT systems operating in the United States, serving the

downtown areas of Detroit, Jacksonville, and Miami. The Detroit People Mover line has

remained unchanged from its opening in 1987, while the Miami MetroMover added two

extensions in 1994. Jacksonville opened the first 0.7-mile (1.1-kilometer) section of its Skyway

in 1989, with new

extensions

opening from 1997 to 1999 to serve both sides of the St. Johns

River.

A relatively

large

institutional

system

is

the

one

at

the

West

Virginia

University

campus

in

30

Morgantown.

This

3-mile (5-kilometer)

line features

off-line stations

that

enable close

headways,

down

to

15

seconds,

and

permit

cars

to

bypass

intermediate

stations.

The

cars

are

small, accommodating only

21 passengers, and

are

operated

singly. On-demand

service

is

possible during off-peak hours.

Exhibit

8

lists

ridership

and

other

statistics

for

the

North

American

AGT

systems

used

for

public transit.

Exhibit 8

North American AGT Systems Used for Public Transit (2000)

Daily

ridership

data

for

other

North

American

AGT

systems

are

shown

in

Exhibit

9.

Caution

should be exercised with many of these figures, as the non-transit systems are not required to

provide the reporting accuracy mandated by the FTA. Ridership on many systems is also likely

affected by seasonal patterns and less pronounced peaking (with the notable exception of airport

systems)

than occurs on transit systems. Regardless of

these

qualifications, the

total daily

ridership on the 36 non-transit systems amounts to over 500,000, compared to about 20,000 on

the three transit AGT lines.

Exhibit 9

U.S. Non-Transit AGT Systems (2003)

31

4. Monorail

Although often thought of as being relatively modern technology, monorails (Exhibit 10) have

existed for over 100 years, with the first monorail, in Wuppertal, Germany, having opened in

1901. Vehicles typically straddle or are suspended from a single rail. Driverless monorails fall

into the category of AGT, and include the systems identified as monorails in Exhibit 9, plus the

Jacksonville Skyway. Monorails that use drivers are by definition not automated, and thus form

their

own category. For

the purposes

of

determining

capacity,

monorails

can use the

grade-separated

rail

procedures, with

appropriate

adjustments

for

the

technology

’

s

particular

performance characteristics.

The 0.9-mile (1.5-kilometer) Seattle Center monorail, originally constructed for the 1962

World

’

s Fair, is the only existing U.S.

example of a non-automated public transit

monorail.

It

carried approximately 6,100 passengers a day in 1999. About 1 dozen privately operated

monorails are in use at North American zoos and amusement parks. Outside the United States,

several

monorails

are

used

for

public

transit

service

similar

to

an

elevated

heavy

rail

line.

Examples include the Wuppertal Germany monorail, seven systems in Japan, and a downtown

circulator in Sydney, Australia.

Exhibit 2-10

Monorail Examples

Funiculars, Inclines, and Elevators

Funicular

railways,

also

known

as

inclined

planes

or

simply

inclines

,

are

among

the

oldest

successful forms

of

mechanized

urban

transport

in

the

United

States,

with

the

first

example,

Pittsburgh

’

s Monongahela Incline, opening in 1870 (and still in operation today). Funiculars are

well suited for hilly areas, where most other transportation modes would be unable to operate,

or

at

best

would require circuitous routings. The steepest

funicular

in North America

operates

on a 100% (45°

) slope, and a few international funiculars have even steeper grades.

Early funiculars were used to transport railroad cars and canal boats in rural areas, as well as to

provide access to logging areas, mines, and other industrial sites. Funiculars have played a role

in

many transit systems,

moving not just people, but cars, trucks, and streetcars

up and down

steep

hillsides.

An example

of

a

remaining

vehicle-carrying

incline

that

is

part

of

a

transit

system

is

in

Johnstown, Pennsylvania.

Nearby,

in

Pittsburgh,

the

Port

Authority

owns

the

2

remaining inclines from a total of more than 15 that once graced the hilly locale.

Inclined plane status.

The number of remaining inclined planes in North America is small, but they are used

extensively in other parts of the world to carry people up and down hillsides in both urban and

rural environments.

Switzerland

alone

has

over

50

funiculars,

including

urban

funiculars

in

Zü

rich and Lausanne. Many other cities worldwide have funiculars, including Barcelona,

Budapest, Haifa, Heidelberg, Hong Kong, Paris, Prague, and Valparaí

so, Chile (which has 15).

32

Many of these systems are less than 30 years old or have been completely rebuilt in recent years.

In addition, funiculars are still being built for

access to industrial plants, particularly dams and

hydroelectric

power

plants,

and

occasionally,

ski

resorts.

New

funiculars,

primarily

in

Europe,

also provide subway or metro station access. New designs rarely handle vehicles and make use

of hauling equipment and controls derived from elevators.

The person capacity of older inclined planes is modest, but modern designs can carry large

numbers of people.

Capacity is a function of length, number of intermediate stations (if any), number of cars (one or

two), and speed. Person capacity is usually modest

—

on the order of a few hundred passengers

per hour. However, high-speed, large-capacity funiculars are in use, and a new facility, designed

for metro station access in Istanbul, has a planned capacity of 7,500 passengers per direction per

hour.

Most typical design involves two cars counterbalancing each other, connected by a fixed cable,

using either

a

single

railway-type

track

with

a

passing

siding

in

the

middle

or

double

tracks.

Single-track

inclined

elevators

have just

one

car

and

often

do

not

use railway

track

—

see,

for

example, the Ketchikan example in Exhibit 11(e). When passing sidings are used, the cars are

equipped with steel wheels with double flanges on one set of outer wheels per car, forcing the

car to always take one side of the passing siding without the need for switch movement. Earlier

designs used a second emergency cable, but this is now replaced by automatic brakes, derived

from

elevator technology, that grasp

the running

rails when

any

excess speed

is detected.

Passenger compartments can either be level, with one end supported by a truss, or sloped, with

passenger seating areas arranged in tiers.

To

minimize

wear-and-tear

on

the

cable,

and

make the

design

mechanically

simpler,

an

ideal

funicular alignment

is

a

straight

line,

with

no

horizontal

or

vertical

curves.

To

achieve

this

design,

a combination

of

viaducts,

cuttings,

and/or

tunnels

may

be

required,

as

illustrated

in

Exhibit 11(c). However, many funiculars have curved alignments.

Public elevators, as shown in Exhibit 11(f), are occasionally used to provide pedestrian

movement

up

and

down

steep

hillsides

where

insufficient

pedestrian

volumes

exist

to

justify

other modes. These elevators allow pedestrians to bypass stairs or long, out-of-direction routes

to the top or bottom of the hill.

Exhibit 11 provides statistics for North American funiculars.

Exhibit 11

Funicular and Elevator Examples

33

Exhibit 12

U.S. and Canadian Funiculars and Public Elevators (2001)

5. Aerial Ropeways

缆车

Aerial ropeways (Exhibit 13) encompass a number of modes that transport people or freight in a

carrier

suspended from an aerial rope

(wire

cable). The

carrier consists of the

following

components:

?

A device for supporting the carrier from the rope: either a

carriage

consisting of two or

34

more wheels mounted on a frame that runs along the rope, or a

fixed

or

detachable grip

that clamps onto the rope;

?

A unit for transporting persons or freight: an enclosed

cabin,

a partially or fully enclosed

gondola,

or an open or partially enclosed

chair

; and

?

A

hanger

to connect the other two pieces.

The rope may serve to both suspend and haul the carrier (

monocable

); or two ropes may be used:

a fixed track rope for suspension and a moving haul rope for propulsion (

bicable

); or multiple

ropes may be used to provide greater wind stability. Carriers can operate singly back- and-forth,

or as part of a two- carrier shuttle

operation, or as part of

a multiple-carrier continuously

circulating system.

The common aerial ropeway modes are the following:

?

Aerial

tramways,

which

are

suspended

by

a

carriage

from

a

stationary

track

rope,

and

propelled by a separate haul rope. Tramways have one or, more commonly, two

relatively

large (20 to

180

passenger)

cabins

that

move

back

and

forth

between

two

stations. Passenger loading occurs while the carrier is stopped in the station.

?

Detachable-grip

aerial

lifts

,

consisting

of

a

large

number

of

relatively

small

(6

to

15

passenger)

gondolas

4

or 2

to

8 passenger chairs that

travel

around

a continuously

circulating ropeway. The carriers move at higher speeds along the line, but detach from

the line at stations to slow to a creep speed (typically 0.8 ft/s or 0.25 m/s) for passenger

loading.

?

Fixed-grip aerial lifts,

which are similar to detachable-grip lifts, with the important exception

that the carriers remain attached to the rope through stations. Passenger loading and unloading

either occurs at the ropeway line speed (typical for ski lifts), or by slowing or stopping the rope

when a carrier arrives in a station (typical for gondolas). Some fixed-grip gondolas are designed

as

pulse

systems, where several carriers are attached to the rope in close sequence. This allows

the

rope

to

be

slowed

or

stopped

fewer times,

as

several

carriers

can

be

loaded

or

unloaded

simultaneously in stations.

?

Funitels

are a relatively new variation of detachable-grip aerial lifts, with the cabin suspended

by two hangers from two haul ropes, allowing for longer spans between towers and improved

operations during windy conditions.

Exhibit 13

Aerial Ropeway Examples

35

Aerial ropeways are most often associated with ski areas, but are also used to carry passengers

across obstacles such as rivers or narrow canyons, and as aerial rides over zoos and amusement

parks. A few are used for public transportation. The Roosevelt Island aerial tramway in New

York City, connecting the island to Manhattan, carries approximately 3,000 people each

weekday. A gondola system in Telluride, Colorado, transports residents, skiers, and employees

between the historic section of Telluride, nearby ski runs, and the Mountain Village resort area,

reducing automobile trips between the two communities and the air pollution that forms in the

communities

’

box

canyons.

In 2006,

the Delaware River

Port Authority plans

to complete a

detachable-grip gondola across the river between Philadelphia and Camden, primarily to serve

tourists visiting attractions on both sides of the river. Finally, several North American ski areas

use aerial ropeways for site access from remote parking areas, as an alternative to shuttle buses.

Aerial

ropeway

alignments

are

typically

straight

lines,

but

allow

changes

in

grade (vertical

curves) over the route. Intermediate stations are most often used when a change in horizontal

alignment

is

required,

resulting

in two

or

more separate ropeway segments

—

detachable-grip

carriers can be shuttled between each segment, but passengers must disembark from other types

of carriers and walk within the station to the loading area for the next segment. Gondola systems

and chair lifts can also have changes in horizontal alignment without intermediate stations, but

this kind of arrangement is much more mechanically complex and is rarely used.

Exhibit 14 lists aerial tramway,

detachable-grip

gondola, and funitel systems

in use in North

America, along with their main function and technical data.

Exhibit 14

U.S. and Canadian Aerial Ropeways (2002)

36

37

6. Cable Cars

Cable cars (Exhibit 15) now operate only in San Francisco, where the first line opened in 1873.

5

Although

associated

with

San

Francisco

’

s

steep

hills,

more

than

two

dozen

other

U.S.

cities,

including relatively

flat

cities

such

as

Chicago

and

New

York,

briefly

employed

this

transit

mode

as

a

faster, more

economical

alternative

to

the

horse- drawn

streetcar.

Most

cable

lines

were converted to electric streetcar lines between 1895 and 1906 due to lower operating costs

and greater reliability, but lines in San Francisco, Seattle, and Tacoma that

were too steep for

streetcars continued well into the 20th century.

Three cable car routes remain in San Francisco as a National Historic Landmark and carried 9.2

million riders in 2000. The cars are pulled along by continuous underground cables (wire ropes)

that move at a constant speed of 9 mph (15 km/h). A grip mechanism on the car is lowered into

a slot between the tracks to grab onto the cable and propel the e?The grip is released

from

the

cable

as

needed

for

passenger

stops,

curves,

and

locations

where

other

cables

cross

over the line.

Cable

car

systems

are

not

very

efficient,

as

55

to

75%

of

the

energy

used

is

lost

to

friction.

However, cars can stop and start as needed, more-or-less independently of the other cars on the

system, and a large number of cars can be carried by a small number of ropes. The Chicago City

Railway

operated

around 300 cars

during

rush

hours

on

its

State

Street

line

in

1892,

which

comprised four separate rope sections totaling 8.7 miles (13.9 km) in length.

Modern automated people movers (APMs) that use cable propulsion have retained many of

the original cable car technological concepts, albeit in an improved form. Modern cable-hauled

APMs often include gripping mechanisms and, in some cases, turntables at the end of the line.

Some of these APMs can be accelerated to line speed out of each station, in a similar manner as

detachable-grip aerial ropeways. Once at line speed, a grip on these APMs attaches to the haul

rope,

and the vehicle is

moved at

relatively high speed along the line.

At

the approach to the

next station, the vehicle detaches from the rope, and mechanical systems brake the vehicle into

the station. This technology addresses two of the major issues with the original cable cars: (1)

having only two speeds,

stop and line speed (up

to 14

mph or

22 km/h),

which caused jerky,

uncomfortable acceleration for passengers and (2) rope wear each time cars gripped the cable,

as the cable slid briefly through the slower moving grip before the grip took hold and caught up

to

the

cable

’

s

speed.

The

airport

shuttle

at

the

Cincinnati-Northern

Kentucky Airport

is

an

example of a detachable-grip

APM,

while the Mystic Transit

Center APM (Exhibit

15b) is an

example of an APM with a permanently attached cable. Other examples were listed in Exhibit 7.

Exhibit 15

Cable Car Examples

38

Reading material

Exclusive Right-of-Way

The

right-of-way

is

reserved

for

the

exclusive

use

of

transit

vehicles.

There

is

no

interaction

with other vehicle types. Intersections with other modes are

grade-separated to avoid the

potential

for conflict.

Exclusive

rights-of-way

provide

maximum

capacity

and

the

fastest

and

most reliable service, although at higher capital costs than other right-of-way types. Automated

guideway transit systems must operate on this type of right-of-way, as their automated operation

precludes any mixing with other modes. This right-of-way type is most common for heavy rail

systems

and

many

commuter

rail

systems,

and occurs

on

at

least

portions

of

many

light

rail

systems.

Segregated Right- of-Way

Segregated

rights-of-way

provide

many

of

the

same

benefits

of

exclusive

rights-of-way

but

permit

other

modes

to

cross

the

right-of-way

at

defined

locations

such

as

grade

crossings.

Segregated rights-of-way are most commonly employed with commuter rail and light rail transit

systems. The

use

of this right-of-way

type

for heavy

rail

transit systems has largely

been

eliminated.

Shared Right-of-Way

A shared right-of-way permits other traffic to mix with rail transit vehicles, as is the case with

streetcar lines. While this right-of-way type is the least capital intensive, it does not provide the

benefits in capacity, operating speed, and reliability that are provided by the other right-of-way

types.

39

Lesson Ten

Chapter 4 The Railroad Track

The railroad has a raised track for its cars and engines and the wheels of these railroad

vehicles have flanges on inner side to keep them on this track. The engineer in control of a

locomotive drawing a train over a railroad track does not steer his vehicle as the driver of a

highway motor vehicle must

do. Railroad trains cannot

meet and pass one another at

any

point of the road over which they travel. They must keep to their tracks.

Some

railroads

are

built

with

two

or

more

tracks,

and

on

each

track

the

trains

all

usually

move in the

same

direction. Multiple

tracks

simplify

the

problem of

meeting and

passing. If a railroad has

a single main track, it must have turn-outs or passing sidings

at

intervals, where trains

may leave the main track temporarily and wait

for

other

trains

to

pass.

The most common type of railroad track consists

of two parallel lines of heavy steel

rails, securely fastened to wooden cross-ties placed in a bed of rock or gravel ballast. The

distance

between the

rails

is

called

the

gauge

of

the

railroad.

The

standard

gauge

of

the

railroads in many countries is 1,435 meters.

A uniform railroad gauge makes it possible for a person to travel over several railroads

without changing

cars,

when

the

gauges

were

different

it

was

necessary

for freight

or

passengers to be transferred from one car to another at all points where there was a change

of gauge. The adoption

of a

uniform gauge

effected

a

great

saving in

the

time and in

the

expense of transporting both passengers and freight.

Railroad rails are long heavy bars of steel such shape that the end or cross-section of a

rail looks something like the letter T. The rails are called T-rails because of this shape.

The heavy top part of rail, on which the wheels of cars and engines run, is called the

head; the flat part, which rests on the cross-tie, is the base; while the thin part between the

base and head is called the web. Rails differ greatly in design and weight, according to the

kind of traffic they must support when placed in the track. Most of the rails now

manufactured

are

25

meters

long,

and

vary

in weight

form

33

to

60

kilogrammes

to

the

metre. The largest and heaviest rails are to be found in the main line tracks of the railroads,

which carry the largest volume of freight and passenger traffic.

Railroad rails are fastened to the cross-ties with heavy steel spikes. The most common

type of spike is the cut spike, made of tough steel, with a wedge-shaped point that permits it

to be driven into the tie with a heavy spike maul, and with a hooked head which fits over

the edge of the rail base and holds the rail fast to the tie. Another type of spike, which does

not bruise and tear the fibres of the tie and thereby lead to decay, is the screw spike, made

much like a large screw, with a flanged head that fits over the edge of the rail base. Where

40

Lesson Ten

screw spikes are used, holes are bored into the ties, and the spikes forced into the holes with

wrenches. Screw spikes, when first insert, hold rails more firmly in place than the ordinary

cut spikes. A type of spike newer than the screw spike is an elastic or compression spring

spike. It is made of spring steel, and resembles the ordinary cut spike except that instead of

having the conventional hooked head, it has a goose-necked head. When driven into the tie,

this head exerts a spring pressure upon the base of the rail, holding it and the tie plate firmly

in position with a force which the cut spike and screw spike do not have.

Where the ends of the rails meet in the track, they are held together with splice bars or

joint bars, heavy plates

of steel, which

fit closely to the

web and base

of the rail

on both

sides,

and

are

fastened

together

with

large

steel

bolts

passing

through

holes

in

the

web

of

the rails. There are several types of rail joints, all of them designed for strength and stiffness,

to

hold

up

the

weight

of

passing

trains

and keep the

ends

of

the

rails

from

breaking

and

wearing out.

Rail joints cannot be made entirely stiff, and even with the strongest joints the ends of

the rails give a little as trains pass over. As you stand by a moving train, or even when you

are riding in a passenger car, you can hear the sharp, regular

by the wheels as they move over the rail joints. The pounding of the wheels causes the ends

of the rails to become battered and to split as time passes. Nearly all rails wear out first at

the ends; the rail joint is the weakest part of the track.

When rails are placed in the track, it is customary not to lay the ends of adjacent rails

closely together. Like any other piece of iron or steel, a railroad rail expands and gets a bit

longer when it becomes hot, and contracts and gets shorter when it is cold. If not held firmly

in

place,

12-metre

rail

will change

more

than

a

centimetre

in

length

with

a

change

of

temperature of 140 degrees. If you look at a railroad track on a hot summer day, you will

probably see that the ends of the rails fit snugly together. On a cold day in winter the ends

are a small distance apart. It was formerly necessary for railroad builders, when they were

laying track, to make allowance for the expansion and contraction of the rails, because they

were not held to the ties firmly enough to prevent their lengthening and shortening with the

change of temperature between winter and summer.

Modern methods of track building are such that rails can be held in place and the force

of internal expansion and contraction almost entirely overcomes. A few railroads have been

experimenting in recent years with rails much longer than the standard 25 metres. The rails

of standard length have been welded together to make rails several hundred metres in length.

A

continuous

rail

3,600 metres

in

length

has been laid

in

some

railroads.

The

welding

is

done by electricity, by an oxyacetylene process or by the use of thermit, which consists of

mixture

of

iron

oxide

and

aluminum.

It

has

been

demonstrated

quite

satisfactorily

that

41

Lesson Ten

proper fastening of the rails to the ties can solve the problem of expansion and contraction,

and there is no danger that the track will buckle, as it might do if the rails were not firmly

held in

place.

Though still

in

the

experimental

stage,

the

continuous

rail

may

become

common upon railroads. The elimination of the track joints reduces the cost of track repair

and maintenances, the continuous rails last longer than the shorter rails, and they give better

riding qualities to the track.

The ties of the railroad track are not laid upon the soft earth of the road-bed, but rest

upon a bed of crushed rock or gravel, which is called ballast. On rainy days the ballast lets

the water drain away quickly without weakening or washing away any of the track. In the

winter time water cannot collect in the ballast and freeze. Any poorly drained highway will

in

the

springtime,

under

alternate

freezing

and

thawing,

and

the

railroad

is

no

exception.

Good

drainage

is

the

first

requisite

of

a

good highway;

it

is

the

ballast

in

the

railroad which helps provide needed drainage. Ballast is also necessary to keep the railroad

track at

the

proper

lever and

in

correct

line.

Everybody

has

seen

section

gangs surfacing

tracks in the summer time, working the ballast with shovels and picks. Crushed rock is the

best kind of ballast because it lasts long, it is not dusty, it lets water drain away freely, and it

affords

the best

support

for

the

track.

Next

to

crushed

rock,

gravel

is

the

most

common

material used for ballast.

Railway Terms and New Words

flnge

steer

interval

gravel

n.

v.

n.

n.

岩石或砾石道床

中转，换乘

横断面

轨腰

轨底

道

钉

钩头

道钉

楔子，楔形物

大槌

扳手，钳子

轮缘，凸缘，法兰

驾驶，掌握方向

岔道，岔线，待避线（

turnout

track

）

间隔，空隙

at intervals

每隔一个间隔

砾石；

v.

铺石子

道渣，引伸为道床

turn-out

（

turnout

）

< br>

n.

ballast

n.

a bed of rock or gravel ballast

transfer

v

n

n.

n.

n.

n.

n.

n.

n.

cross- section

web

base

spike

cut spike

wedge

maul

wrench

42

Lesson Ten

splice

n.

联接

splice bar

鱼尾板，联接板，夹板

snug

n.

恰好的，密切的

acetylene

n.

乙炔

oxy-~ process

氧乙炔法

thermit

n.

铝热剂

thaw

v.

融化，溶化

a single track

单线

double tracks

双线

multiple tracks

复线

meet and pass

交会与越行（会让）

；

passing station

会让站

passing sidings

会让线，越行线，侧线

cross-tie

枕木

(tie, sleeper)

wooden ~

木枕

concrete ~

混凝土枕

Consist of = to be made up of

由……组成；

To make allowance for = take

…

into consideration

考虑到，估计到；

e.g.

：

It will take thirty minutes to get to the station, making allowance for traffic delays.

Instesd of + (gerund)

：

（做……）而不做……

e.g.

：

You should be out instead of sitting in on such a fine day.

To keep/prevent/protect

…

from

+ (gerund)

：防止（阻止）……发生

e.g.

：

to keep the ends of rails from breaking and wearing out.

In place

：适当地，切合地；

To last long

：耐久，持久，持续长时间；

In combination with

：与……相结合；

Reading Material

Function of the Track

Track has three main functions. It must support the load, provide a smooth surface for

easy movement and guide the wheels of the train.

The railroad line should be as level and straight as can be achieved, because grades and

curves increase the burden on the locomotive and the wear on the track. The tractive effort

required to pull a load up a 1% grade is about five times what is required on straight level

track

and

a

curvature

of

1 degree

requires

an

increase

of

from

12.5%

to

25%

in

tractive

effort.

Road-bed

is

the

subgrade

on

which

are

laid

the

ballast,

ties

and

rails.

There

are

two

types of it-cut and fill. It should be firm, well drained and of adequate dimensions.

Steel rails support the load which locomotives and cars impose on the track.

Ties support the rails and ballast supports the ties. Today, rail weighing as much as 60

kilogrammes or more to the metre is in use on lines handling heavy traffic. The use of the

43

Lesson Ten

so-called T-rail (from its shape) has persisted because experience has shown it is the most

practical and economic form of rail.

The ties keep the rails the proper distance apart, support them and transmit the load to

the ballast cushion beneath. With modern methods of chemical treatment, the service life of

ties has been approximately trebled, from less than 10 years to more than 20 years, on the

average. For the saving of timber and other reasons, concrete ties have developed so rapidly

that concrete is now considered to be the ideal material for railway ties.

To reduce mechanical wear from impact of loads transmitted through the rail, metal tie

plates are inserted between the

rail and the

tie. These

plates

spread the

rail burden over a

wide tie area, and thus help to protect the tie from the cutting and wearing effect of the rail

base. Wheel friction causes a tendency for rails

“

to cree

p”

longitudinally, especially on each

track. Small anchors, or anticreepers, applied to the rail and bearing against the edge of the

tie are used to check this movement.

Ballast, usually

of crushed

rock,

cinder,

gravel or

mine

waste,

supports and

cushions

the ties and helps to keep them in proper position as well as to distribute the track load over

the

road-bed .It

also facilitates

drainage,

thereby

promoting

firmness

and

smooth

riding

qualities of track.

As

a

train

enters

a

curve,

its

natural

tendency

is

to

continue

going

straight

ahead.

It

turns only because the outside rail forces it to do so. To permit trains to traverse curves with

safety and greater smoothness, the outer rail is super-elevated, or raised above the height of

the inner rail so as to balance the forces set up when the movement of the train is diverted

from a straight line by the rails of a curve. The right amount of superelevation for a given

curve depends on the train speeds.

Railway Terms and New Words

grade and curve

gradient and curvature

tractive effort (force)

fill and cut

subgrade, roadbed

metal tie plate

bear against

anti-creeper

坡段（斜坡）和曲线

坡度（斜率）和曲度（曲率）

牵引力

路堤和路堑（填方和挖方）

路基

轨底板

靠（压）在……上，紧靠

防爬器

anchor

制动器

44

Lesson Eleven

Chapter 5 General Vehicle Description

The

trains

running

on

Shanghai

Metro

Line

1

and

Line

2

are

all

made

in

Germany.

There are three types of cars:

l

Type A is a trailer car with a cab, a length over couplers of

≤

24,400 mm and a

tare weight of 33t.

l

Type B is a motor car with pantograph, a length over couplers of 22,800mm and a

tare weight of 36t.

l

Type C is a motor car with air compressor, a length over couplers of 22,800mm

and a tare weight of 36t.

The carbody of the Shanghai Metro cars is of a lightweight construction made of large

aluminum alloy extrusion profiles. Each car has five pocket sliding doors per car side. The

passenger compartments

of

the

cars

are

connected

together

by

gangways.

Fiberglass

seat

benches are

arranged longitudinally

between

the

doors,

thus also

creating ample

standing

accommodation. Each car is equipped with two roof-mounted air conditioning units.

The

cars

are

each provided

with

two bogies.

The

cars

are

equipped

with

a

compressed-air

supply

system

to

operate

the

pantographs,

the

doors,

the

air-conditioning

system,

the horn,

the

windshield

wipers,

the

secondary

suspension

components

and

the

brakes.

The

B-cars

and C-cars

of

one

unit

are

connected

by

means

of

a

semi-permanent

drawbar. Motor cars are coupled to trailer cars via semi- automatic couplers. Semi-automatic

couplers are also used to connect different units. There is an automatic coupler at each train

end (see Fig.2).

The basic vehicle trainset arrangement consists of two units combined to form a 6-car

train. A 3-car unit for a 6-car trainset comprises two motor cars (B-car and C-car) and one

trailer car (A-car).

The

electrical

concept

of

the

vehicle

may

be

divided

into

the

high-voltage

power

supply, the auxiliary power supply including battery supply and the earthing concept.

High-voltage Power Supply:

The traction equipment, the auxiliary inverter and, as a special case, the air compressor

are directly fed by the 1500V DC line current.

The

traction

inverters

of

the

traction

equipment

supply

the

necessary

three-phrase

current for the traction motors. Each traction inverter is protected by the high-speed circuit

breaker.

Auxiliary Power Supply:

To

supply

the

various

kinds

of

electrical

equipment

on

the

vehicle,

there

are

three

voltage levels provided:

45

Lesson Eleven

l

DC voltage of 110V

l

AC voltage of 220V

l

Three-phase voltage of 380V

±

5%, 50 Hz

±

1%

The three-phase

voltage

is

supplied by auxiliary inverter (A- car, B- car and C-car)

which can be fed with power by the 1500V DC line supply or by the workshop-supply. The

220V voltage for single-phase AC loads is also fed with power by the A-car inverter.

The

DC level

of

110V is supplied by

the

battery

chargers incorporated in A-car

inverters or the batteries (A-car).

The

following

single

phase

AC

loads

are

supplied

by the

auxiliary

inverters

of

the

A-cars:

l

Passenger compartment lighting (220V)

l

Cab heating

l

Windscreen heating (220V)

l

Socket outlets (one 220V socket outlet per car)

Three-phase loads include:

?

Compressors of air conditioning system

?

Condenser blower

?

Evaporator blower

?

Traction container blower and braking resistor blower

The

DC- level

is divided into

an

electronic

power supply

(important loads) and a

normal power supply. If the battery drops below a limit value, the battery main contactor is

opened and the normal DC power supply is disconnected from the battery. When the battery

voltage rises above the limit value, the normal power supply is automatically switched back

on line.

The following loads are connected to the normal DC power supply:

?

Cab lighting

?

Emergency lighting

?

Control of air conditioning system and emergency ventilation

?

Door control

?

Auxiliaries

?

Train control

?

Radio

?

Control of air compressor

?

Head and tail lights

The following are connected to the electronic power supply:

?

All brake electronic control units (BECU)

46

Lesson Eleven

?

All traction control units (TCU)

?

Control of the auxiliary inverters

?

Central control unit (CCU) and SIBAS KLIP stations

?

ATC system

?

Public address system

?

Display

Earthing concept

The earthing of the Shanghai Metro Line 2 is required mainly to ensure effective EMC,

operational earthing and protective earhting:

?

EMC

-(electromagnetic

compatibility)

measures

protect

the

electronic

equipment

in

the vehicle and the trackside signaling equipment against interference from high-frequency

pulsating

currents produced in

the

vehicle.

This interference

can

lead

to

failure

of

the

vehicle and to disturbance of radio traffic and of service on the track.

?

Operational earthing

serves

to provide

a

negative

return

for

the

line current via the

track (traction earth).

?

Protective earthing provides protection for persons and equipment against high touch

voltages in the case of faults.

Braking Systems

The brake equipment of the train consists of two different braking systems:

?

ED-braking system

(electrodynamic brakes)

?P

/AP-braking system

(P=pneumatic, AP=active and passive control)

The

electric

traction

equipment

of

the

train

permits

the

use

of

an

electrodynamic

braking system that consists of completely independent dynamic brakes per motor car. Each

brake is controlled steplessly by the traction control unit (TCU) installed in the motor cars.

The energy generated during braking is fed back into the overhead line as

far as possible.

Surplus energy is dissipated in the brake resistor.

The

pneumatic

braking

system

can

be

controlled

actively

or

passively.

For

active

control, compressed air is used to press the brake pads against the wheel with the help of a

cylinder

and

a caliper.

For

passive

control,

the

pads

are

applied

by

spring

force,

i.e.

air

pressure

is

not

present

in the

brake

cylinder.

The

active

and

passive

brake

circuits

are

separate

from each other and cannot act simultaneously, thus preventing overbraking. The

active pneumatic brake is controlled steplessly by the electronic brake control unit (BECU)

installed in each car. The passive pneumatic brake is applied with full force either when the

parking brake valve is de-energized or when no compressed air is applied to the pads.

A train diagnostic system is provided for each 3-car unit. The Shanghai Metro trains

47