A Critical Review on American Individualism

[Abstract] Individualism, the core of the social philosophy and value in American

culture, takes up the most important position in the American ideology, influencing all

aspects of life ranging from political to social fields. Philosophically speaking,

individualism is characteristic of western capitalist political and social philosophy

regarding personal value as the most lofty, emphasizing self-control and personal

development as opposed to any form of intervention and obstruction against

individual by any external factor. As part of the value system and humanitarian theory,

individualism is the embodiment and generalization of the attitude and belief toward

national politics, economy, religion and social behavior. The value system of

individualism is mainly seen in the following fields: individual is the center and core

of all values; society is the means to the realization of personal goals in which

individual is the only purpose; morally speaking, all men are created equal and each

person is entitled to free choice of life style. Since the birth of individualism, it has

been influencing American society and has penetrated into every aspects of American

life. The reviews of American individualism are varied and are subject to change with

time but the promotion of its essence of self-realization remains intact. Based on the

historical origin of individualism, this paper discusses the profound causes of its

formation and development and the influences it has exerted on different aspects of

American life. At the same time, it also discusses different features of American

individualism through the comparison between individualism and collectivism under

certain historical circumstances to gain a general understanding of American

individualism.

[Key Words] culture; individualism; social values; America

1.

Introduction

Individualism, which has various explanations in the British Encyclopedia, is a moral,

political, and social philosophy, emphasizing individual liberty, the primary

importance of the individual an

d the “Personal Independence.”[1]P183It is often

contrasted with either totalitarianism or collectivism, but in fact it is always taken as

the spokesman of spectrum of behaviors ranging from the social level to highly

individualistic societies. Individualism embraces opposition to authority, and to all

manner of controls over the individual, especially controlled by the political stale or

society. It is thus directly opposed to collectivism, which advocates subordination of

the individual to the will of the society or community.

“

Individualism is the core of the American culture. It focuses on the satisfaction of

one’s own desire and interests through self

-reliance. The word individualism was first

promoted by the French political reviewer Alexis de Tocqueville in his classical book

Democracy in America published in 1835.”[2] P225

In this book, Tocqueville expounded clearly the difference between “Individualism”

and “egoism”. Individualism, as a social and political philosophy, emphasizes

personal independence and creativity. It holds that personal value was the most lofty,

attaching great importance to the notion of self-control and personal development

without any form of intervention and obstruction against individual from absolutely

power especially the t

yranny in a nation’s history, the nation itself, society or any

other external factors. This idea is deeply influenced by the earlier individualism

promoted by John Locke, the famous British philosopher, also the spokesman of

traditional British philosophy where American individualism was ingrained in.

John Locke asserted that human beings as a certain kind of organisms in the universe

was the basic unit of nature. In his book The Philosopher of Freedom, he held that

selfhood was not constituted and cultivated in the political arena during the processes

of socialization but is something inborn, static and natural, the essence of the structure

of human being politically determined [3]. P190

The origin of American individualism can be traced back to the beginning years of its

history, when first American immigrants came to the North American continent

looking for better life and shaking off the yoke of European feudal tradition and the

oppression from all kinds of powerful classes. It is determined that elements of

anti-

yoke and searching for freedom should be the American people’s character. This

was the original explanation of American individualism. Concerning this, what

American people are always proud of is the Declaration of Independence: “we hold

these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by

their creator with certain inalienable rights, among these are life, liberty and the

pursuit of happiness.” [4] P503

American individualism affected almost every aspect of American life. As the

Chinese famous professor Li Qirong expounded in his lecture in the Central Normal

University of China, individualism has seven reflections in American Culture:

1. Personal privacy

2. Self- Reliance

3. Self-expression

4. Independent thinking

5. Personal freedom

6. Independent determination

7. Personal equality

8. Free competition

9. Personal lifestyle [5] P90

There were many different understandings of individualism. Each has its own explanations. Thus

when reviewing American individualism, it is very important to analyze both its advantages and

disadvantages.

2. The Definition of Individualism

2.1 The definition of the social values

V

alue

is

an

ideal,

goal,

regulation

and

yardstick

people

chose

on

their

own

to

measure

people’s

daily

behaviors

and

actions.

But

social

value

is

the

common

cognition

and

criteria

used

to

distinguish right from wrong with the function of evaluation. Social value, as a social conception,

is

the

way

a

country

or

a

nation

shows

its

attitude

or

reaction

to

certain

social

phenomenon.

Although the common recognition of a society is closely linked with a set of decrees or policies of

a

nation,

social

values

is

often

considered

as

an

outcome

of

many

factors

such

as

politics,

economy, thought and ethic during the process of social development. Therefore, each nation has

its own special criteria used to judge right and wrong, beauty and ugliness, good and evil, mercy

and guilt.

Every society, every nation has its own ideal and the target to chase. If these ideals and targets are

specified, they will evolve into social values. Once the social value is recognized by the public, it

will take on two main functions.

(1) It clearly regulates all the members of the society what behavior is permitted and glorious, and

what

behavior

is

forbidden

and

condemned

by

people.

In

fact,

it

is

the

criteria

used

to

keep

people’s behaviors within bounds.

(2) It urges all the members of the society be in the pursuit of the ideal which clearly reflects in the

social values, and contribute their energy to the realization of the ideal society. As a matter of fact,

it acts as a spiritual guide to people’s behaviors.

During the past decade, sociologists have got a general idea about American’s concept of value,

such as the right of private processions, personal independence, equal opportunity, self-reliance,

advocating reality, religious tolerance, etc.

In

the

1960s,

American

famous

sociologist

Robin

Williams

and

Arthur

Albert

concluded

a

general

concept

which

had

been

accepted

widely

by

the

public.

In

their

opinions,

there

was

something very important for people to keep their eyes on:

(1)

Freedom

(2)

Democracy

(3)

Equality, that is to say

, American people believe that the social relationship in the United

States is horizontal, not vertical.

(4)

They play high value on personality but not the common responsibility to the collective.

(5)

Individual independence.

(6)

Their aims of life are looking for success especially the success on wealth, money, or other

materials.

(7)

They advocate efficiency and reality.

(8)

They are fond of the changeable lifestyle.[6] P52

All

the

items

above

are

the

general

ideas

about

the

most

important

social

values

of

Americans

concluded by their own. Although each item can be explained relatively, but as a unity, each has

tight

link

with

another.

Among

all

the

items,

we can

easily

found

that

personality

is

the

most

essential factor.

2.2 The definition of individualism in American society

Individualism,

as

a

kind

of

value

system, was

an

outcome

of

historic

development. It

is certain

that

it

would

change

along

with

time.

However,

individualism

has

its

own

features,

such

as

individuality, laissez-faire in economy, etc. Individualists considered that the function of a nation

was to supply service for individual development. The aim of the activities of human beings was

self- interests

even

sometimes

this

self-centered

system

developed

into

egoism.

Individualists

advocated

that

one

should

live

by

his

or

her

own

lifestyle

and

it

is

one’s

personal

rights

to

l

ive

without the correspondence to the conformity.

There are obviously different explanations in the Catholic Encyclopedia: Individualism is not the

opposite

of

socialism,

except

in

a

very

general

and

incomplete

way

. Individualism

is scarcely

a

principle for it exhibits too many degrees, and it is too general to be called a theory or a doctrine.

It

means

that

the

individual

conscience

or

the

individual

reason

is

not

merely

the

decisive

subjective

rule,

rather

it

has

no

objective

authority

or

standard

which

is

bound

to

take

into

account.[7] P193

In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s English

-Chinese Dictionary, it is obvious that individualism has

no direct opposition to collectivism. Individualism here means:

(1) The feeling or behavior of a person who likes doing things in his or her own way, regardless of

what other people do.

(2)

It

is

a

theory

that

favors

free

action

and

complete

liberty

of

belief

for each

individual

(contrasted with the theory that favors the supremacy of the

stage.) [8] P758

In general, individualism is a kind of concept of value and ideological system, as an

outcome of western capitalism, together with self-interest and satisfaction. It

emphasizes the initiative to satisfy and carry out personal desire and requests. Its core

is to see personal value high above everything, putting personal desire above the

interest of nation, collective and other people. For the sake of personal benefits,

individualists do not hesitate to injure society, collective and others’ benefits.

As expounded in Tocquevil

le’s book Democracy in America, Individualism has three

meanings:

Firstly, Individualism, as an aim of values, emphasizes on oneself is the aim of one’s

words and behaviors. “Self” has the most important value and the society is only the

method to realize

“self”.

Secondly, as a thought of political democracy, individualism opposes any intervention

from authority, nation, collective or individuals. It put high value on the slogan of

“free government” which leads to the spread of anarchism.

Thirdly, as a thought of economy and possession system, individualism advocates

sustaining private system of possessions.[9] P198

In Habits of the Heart the author Robert Bellah, Richard Madsen pointed out that

Individualism was the core of American value. Americans believed in personal

dignity and the sacred rights which were inviolable.[10] P27

They thought for themselves, judged for themselves and made decisions for

themselves. They lived by their own lifestyles. Anything violating these rights could

be considered morally wrong and a blasphemy again the God. In this book, the

authors made a clear division between Individualism and Egoism. They considered

that Egoism was a kind of concept that one only thinks about himself with crazy love

for himself in front of everything. But Individualism, as they advocated, was a kind of

calm feeling that made every independent citizen live above others and live together

with their families or friends who agreed with them where the small community came

from. Egoism was extreme individualism.

In American society, different people have different understanding of Individualism.

Most American believed that it is self-reliance, self- improvement, self-expression, the

forces to personal success and social development. Benjamin Franklin was the

successful representative of Individualism in the early American history. Benjamin

Franklin who was born very poor, gained his success through his hard working which

was considered the only way to wealth at that time.

American famous transcendentalist Emerson (1803-1882) expressed his

understanding of individualism in self-

Reliance: walk on one’s own feet, work with

one’s own hands and express one’s own opinions.[11] P398

If it was correct that American society believed that Individualism was the golden

doctrine in 18th and 19th century, it was obvious that in 20th century, with the

coming of large-scale industrialization which soften the unlimited emphasis on

individualism, American society turned their yes to collective interests, communality

interests and the importance of public interests. People always feel lonely when they

face the prosperous industrial society. Thus, they turn to realize their personal

interests with the help of Trade Union, church or other associations. The government,

in order to balance the interests of many social organizations or communities, has

been paying more attention to intervening in the fields of economic society and living.

Thus, with the decrease of the personal importance in the modern industrial society

and the rise of the function of organizations and departments of government,

American value on interpersonal relationship and the link between individual and

society has changed accordingly. More and more people believed that individualism

entails cooperating with others through trade, which facilitates the pursuit of each

party’s happiness, and which is carried out not just on the level of goods but on the

level of knowledge and friendship. Economically, trade is essential for life, for it

provides one with many of the goods and values one need. Thus, creating an

environment where trade flourishes is of great importance and great interest for the

individualists. Politically, true individualism means recognizing that one has a right to

choose one’s own life and happiness. Bu

t it also means writing with other citizens to

preserve and defend the institutions that protect that right. Unity and individualism are

not mutually exclusive. They can be united as individuals without losing their

individuality or their love for individual liberty. This unified action used to protect

their countries to provide them safety and security rise out of individualism, not in

contradistinction to them.

3. The origin of Individualism and its changes during the history of the United States

3.1 The origin of individualism

As is mentioned

in Introduction, the origin of American Individualism can be traced back to the

beginning

years

in

its

history,

when

first

American

immigrants

came

to

the

North

American

continent

looking

for

better

life

and

shaking

off

they

yoke

of

European

feudal

tradition

and

the

oppression

from

all

kinds

of

powerful

classes.

It

is

determined

that

there

were

elements

of

Anti-

oppression and searching for freedom in American people’s character. This was the original

explanation of American Individualism.

Although

the

term

“Individualism”

was

not

in

general

use

until

the

1820s,

the

foundational

principles

behind

the

concept

were

established

by

the

mid-eighteenth

century.

Enlightenment

philosophers like Newton and Locke argued that the universe is arranged in an orderly system, and

that

by

the

application

of

reason

and

intellect,

human

beings

are

capable

of

apprehending

that

system. This philosophy represented a radical shift from earlier nations that the world is ordered

by a stern, inscrutable God whose plans are beyond human understanding and whose will can only

be

known

through

religious

revelation.

Enlightenment

philosophy

encouraged

thinkers

like

Franklin

and

Jefferson

to

turn

to

Deism,

a religion

that

privileges

reason

over faith

and

rejects

traditional religious tents in favor of a general belief in a benevolent creator. By privileging human

understanding and the capacity of the individual, these new ideas recorded the way people thought

about government, society and rights.

Thus the Declaration of Independence is taken as the embodiment of the eighteenth-century regard

for the interests of the individual. Taking as unquestionably “Self

-

evident” the idea that “all men

are created equal”[12] P503, the Declaration of Independence mad

e the rights and potential of the

individual the cornerstone of American values. The fact that these lines from the Declaration of

Independence are among the most quoted in all of American letters testifies to the power of this

commitment to individual freedom in American culture.

The

second

continental

congress

affirmed

the

Declaration’s

privileging

of

the

individual

by

making the signing of the document an important occasion. That is, by using the representatives’

signatures

as

the

means

of

validating

this

public

document,

they

attested

to the

importance

of

individual identity and individual consent to government. These famously large signatures are thus

the

graphic

emblems

of

the

revolutionaries’

commitment

to

individualism.

“Of

course,

the

Declaration of Independence conspicuously left out women and did not even seem to include all

men”.[13] P243. When America achieved independence, many individuals found that their rights

to liberty were not considered self-evident. For African American slaves, Native Indian Americans,

and many others, the New Nation’s commitment to individual rights was mere rhetoric rather than

reality.

But

even

though

slavery

and

systematic

inequality

were

an

inescapable

reality

for

many

Americans,

the

nation

embraced

the

myth

of

the

“

self-

man”

as

representative

of

its

national

character. According to this myth, America’s protection of individual freedom enabled anyone, no

matter how humble his beginnings, to triumph trough hard work and talent.

One of the earliest and most influential

expressions of this version of the “American Dream”

is

Benjamin

Franklin’s

narrative

of

his

own rise from

modest

beginning

to

a

position

of

influence

and wealth. It is not excessive to say that the earliest embodiment of American Individualism was

Franklin

.

He

promoted

the

notion

of

“God

helps

those who

help

themselves”[14]

P183.

He

not

only

said

so

but

also

act

like

this.

Franklin

self-consciously

uses

the

autobiographical

form

to

foreground his narrative self-construction as an ideal

American citizen.

He

repeatedly played on

the potential for self-making that print and authorship offer the individual likening his own life to

a book that can be edited, amended, and corrected for “errata”.

Franklin’s conception of self thus hinges on the idea that the indiv

idual

is the author of his own

life and destiny, with full power to construct as what he wills. Franklin’s presentation of himself as

the ideal American individual was widely accepted. While he lived in France, he was celebrated as

the

embodiment

of

the

lived

in

France,

he

was

celebrated

as

the

embodiment

of

the

virtue,

naturalism

and simplicity

that

supposedly

characterized

the

new

world---- an

image

he carefully

maintained

by

shunning

French

fashion to

dress

plainly

and wearing

a

primitive

fur

hat

around

P

aris.

So

effective was Franklin’s

physical

self

-presentation

he

became

a

kind

of cult

finger

in

France.

Paintings,

prints,

busts,

medallions,

clocks,

vases,

plates,

handkerchiefs

and

even

snuff-

boxes were manufactured emblazoned with Franklin’s portrait. H

is American Individualism

had

become

a

popular

commodity.

“

American

Westward

Movement

and

life

in

the

border

area

promoted

greatly

to

the

development

of

American

Individualism,

therefore,

some

people

believed

that

Individualism

was

actually

a

certain

kind

of

cultural

heritage

of

frontier

life.”[15]

P53

The

American

famous

historian

Frederick

J.

Turner

held

that

the

vast

land

in

the

west

area

had

endowed

American

people

a

deeply

understanding

of

freedom.

It

can

be

easily

found

in

American

history

of

Westward

Movement

that

those

pioneers

tried

their

best

to

contribute

their

hometown, set

up

many

school buildings and search

for a better

life

for their

families. They

would

fight

for their

liberty and

freedom willingly and

gladly

with the oppression against all

the

intervention by

foreign

nations once they

realized

the value of liberty.

It was this sense of freedom the first innovation entrusted by the west life to the

Individualism. On the other hand, American pioneers lost their comfortable life when

they were trying to break away from the fetters of the old social order caused by the

civilized society. Hence, they had to live by themselves with their independent spirit

of pioneering which was considered the second innovation entrusted cultivation,

individualism emphasized the concept of bountiful freedom and independence of

people’s living by their own lifestyles.

3.2 The development of individualism during the history

The American people’s belief in Individualism was as old as the nation. But prio

r to

the 1960s, American individualism focused mainly on the political domain----freedom

to speak their minds, to pursue their own religious beliefs, to live where they choose

to live. In the 1950s, America was a nation of political individualists but social

conformities. The 1960s ushered in a racial extension of individualism, broadening it

from the political domain to personal life styles. The 1960s could be considered as the

dividing line of the development of American individualism. The Declaration of

Independence also made it clear that government is instituted for the purpose of

protecting the citizen’s rights. If a government failed to do that, the people had the

right to abolish it. So Americans firmly believed that each individual could pursue his

or her happiness with limited interference from the government.[16][P367]

In the 1960s, individualism developed to a new stage where restrains on individual

intuitions and feelings were greatly reduced by the various rights revolutions such as

the Civil Ri

ghts movement, the women’s movement, the youth movement and the

sexual revolution. All these movements succeeded in breaking down the traditional

value system about sex and family and attributed a lot to the expansion of

individualism. For the youth generation, self-fulfillment and self-expression became

very important. As a result, they joined the Civil Rights Movement to break down the

racial segregation, rebelled against authority, experimented with drugs and indulged

in free competition.

At the same time, individualism also meant self-reliance, independence, and

responsibility. Hence, people became more active in fighting for their rights and

interests. They formed various interests groups to force the government to adopt

policies they like.

With the achievement of American industrialization during the early years of 20th

century, people gradually understood that the development of society and economy

added new interpretations to Individualism. During this period, American people

believed in free competition and advocated that the government with was voted by the

public should not intervene in economy but left individual to hold their own destiny in

the fierce competition through their own capacity and intellect, diligent and progress.

This concept really promoted greatly to the economic growth during this period but at

the same time, brought the large-scale monopoly of occupations and capital, which

means that a large number of small enterprises would be in face of the survival crisis.

Therefore, in the last years of Industrialization, Roosevelt government executed the