Summary 8

Passage 4

Make a summary of not more than 120 words, describing the emergence of paper

money used widely today.

Buying things today is so simple. Just enter a shop, say a book store, choose the

desired book and pay for it. Long ago, before the invention of money, how did people

trade?

The most primitive way of exchange should be the barter trade. In this form of

transaction, people used goods to exchange for the things that they had in mind. For

instance,

if

person

A

wanted

a

book

and

he

had

a

spare

goat,

he

must

look

for

someone who had the exact opposite, that is, that someone, say person B, must have a

spare book of person A?s choice and is also in need of a goat. Having found such a

person,

the

problem

does

not

end

here.

A

big

goat

may

worth

not

only

one

book,

hence

person

B

may

have

to

offer

person

A

something

else,

say

five

chickens.

However,

he

runs

the

risk

of

person

A

rejecting

the

offer

as

he

may

not

need

the

chickens. The above example clearly illustrates the inefficiency of barter trading.

Many years later, the cumbersome barter trade finally gave way to the monetary

form

of

exchange

when

the

idea

of

money

was

invented.

In

the

early

days,

almost

anything

could

qualify

as

money:

beads,

shells

and

even

fishing

hooks.

Then

in

a

region near Turkey, gold coins were used as money. In the beginning, each coin had a

different denomination.

It

was only later, in about

700 BC, that Gyges,

the king

of

Lydia, standardized the value of each coin and even printed his name on the coins.

Monetary means of transaction at first beat the traditional barter trade. However,

as

time

went

by,

the

thought

of

carrying

a

ponderous

pouch

of

coins

for

shopping

appeared not

only troublesome but

thieves attracting. Hence, the Greek

and Roman

traders

who

bought

goods

from

people

faraway

cities,

invented

checks

to

solve

the

problem. Not only are paper checks easy to carry around, they discouraged robbery as

these

checks

can

only

be

used

by

the

person

whose

name

is

printed

on

the

notes.

Following this idea, banks later issued notes in exchange for gold deposited with them.

These bank notes can then be used as cash. Finally, governments of today adopted the

idea and began to print paper money, backed by gold for the country?s use.

Today,

besides

enjoying

the

convenience

of

using

paper

notes

as

the

mode

of

exchange, technology has led man to invent other means of transaction too

like the

credit and cash cards.

Passage 6

Achieving Peak Performance

There

are

seven

steps

to

achieve

peak

performance.

The

first

step

is

to

lead

a

well-rounded life. High achievers, according to experts, are obsessed people who take

work home and then labor over it until bedtime. Furthermore, research has also shown

that such people tend to peak early and then go into a decline or level off. They then

become addicted to work itself, with less concern for results.

High performers, in contrast, are willing to work hard - but within strict limits.

For them, work is not everything and they know how to relax. They are able to leave

work at the office. They value close friendships and family life, and spend a healthy

amount of time with their families.

The

second

step

is

to

select

a

career

you

care

about.

Studies

show

that

high

performers choose work they truly prefer, and spend over two-thirds of their working

hours

doing

it

and

only

one-third

on

disliked

tasks.

They

want

internal

satisfaction

and not just external results such as pay rises and promotions. In the end, of course,

they often have both. Since they enjoy what they do, they produce better work and the

rewards are higher.

Rehearsing

each

challenge

or

task

mentally

is

the

third

step

to

achieving

peak

performance.

Before

any

difficult

or

important

situation

--

a

public

presentation,

a

board

meeting,

a

key

tennis

match,

for

example

--

most

peak

performers

run

their

desired actions through in their minds over and over again. Nearly all of us day-dream

about important coming events, but idle day-dreaming is not the same as a deliberate

mental workout that sharpens the skills to be used in the activity.

In

order

to

achieve

peak

performance,

you

also

have

to

seek

results,

not

perfection. Many ambitious and hardworking people are so obsessed with perfection

that

they

produce

very

little

work.

It

has

been

found

that

those

with

perfectionist

tendencies

earned

considerably

less

a

year

than

those

who

did

not

have

such

tendencies. In contrast, high performers are almost always free of the compulsion to

be

perfect.

They

do

not

think

of

their

mistakes

as

failures,

but

they

learn

from

mistakes so that they can do better the next time.

The next step is to be willing to take risks. Most people are willing to settle for

jobs

which

they

think

are

secure,

even

if

that

also

means

mediocrity

and

boredom,

rather than take

chances. High performers,

on the other hand, are able to take risks

because

they

would

carefully

consider

how

they

would

adjust

and

how

they

would

salvage the situation if, in reality they did fail. Constructing a ?worst

-

case? scenario

allows them to make a rational choice.

The penultimate step to achieving peak performance is not to underestimate your

own,

potential.

Most

of

us

think

we

know

our

own

limits,

but

much

of

what

we

?know?

is

not

knowledge

at

all.

It

could

be

a

belief

which

is

erroneous

and

self-limiting.

These

types

of

beliefs

are

the

biggest

barriers

to

achieving

high-level

performance. Too many of us set our individual limits far below what we can actually

achieve. High performers, on the contrary, are able to ignore artificial barriers. They

concentrate instead on their own feelings, on their functioning, on the momentum of

their effort and are therefore free to achieve peak levels.

Finally, compete with yourself, not with others. High performers focus more on

improving on their own previous efforts than on competing with others.

Such

are

the

skills

of

high

performers.

If

you

want

to

make

the

most

of

your

talents and to live up to your fullest potential, learn to use these skills.

Passage 7

Summarize the passage about the effects of pollution in about 100 words.

Pollution in Its Many Forms

One of the most serious problems facing the world today is pollution, that is the

contamination

of

air,

land

and

water

by

all

kinds

of

chemicals

such

as

poisonous

gases,

waste

materials

and

insecticides.

Pollution

has

upset

the

balance

of

nature,

destroyed many forms of wildlife and caused a variety of illnesses. It occurs in every

country on Earth but is most prominent in industrial countries.

Breathing polluted air is very common to most people, especially those living in

cities. In heavily industrialized areas, fumes from car exhausts and thick smoke from

factory chimneys can be seen darkening the atmosphere. This would reduce visibility

and make the air unpleasant

to

breathe.

Large scale burning of fossil fuels,

such as

coal,

gas and oil, in homes and industries also produces a wide range of pollutants.

This

includes

sulfur

dioxide

which

damages

plants,

destroys

buildings

and

affects

health.

Other

known

pollutants

are

carbon

monoxide,

nitrogen

dioxide

and

dirt

particles. The fumes produced by car exhausts and factories would normally disperse

in the air, but sometimes they are trapped by air layers of different temperatures. The

result is a fog-like haze known as smog. Britain and some other countries introduced

smokeless zones and smokeless fuels some years ago and smog no longer occurs, but

it still remains a very real problem in Japan and the United States.

The motor car is a major source of pollution. In densely populated cities where

there

are

millions

of

cars

on

the

roads,

the

level

of

carbon

monoxide

in

the

air

is

dangerously high. On windless days, the fumes settle near ground level. Fumes from

car exhausts also pour out lead and nitrogen oxide.

The testing of nuclear weapons

and the use of

atomic energy

for experimental

purposes in peaceful times have exposed some people to levels of radiation that are

too high for safety. Crop-spraying by aircraft also adds chemical poisons to the air.

Domestic

rubbish

is

another

very

serious

pollution

problem.

The

average

American

citizen

throws

away

nearly

one

ton

of

rubbish

every

year.

Much

of

this

consists of plastic, metal and glass packaging that cannot be broken down naturally.

Instead it lies with old refrigerators, broken washing machines and abandoned cars in

huge

piles

for

years

without

decaying.

Each

year

the

problem

of

rubbish

disposal

becomes more serious.

Sewage

causes

another

form

of

pollution.

Most of

it

flows

straight

into rivers,

where it is broken down by tiny bacteria. The bacteria need oxygen for this process,

but because of the vast quantities of sewage, the bacteria uses up all available oxygen

in the water, causing the death of countless fish and other river life. Rivers provide a

very

convenient

outlet

for

industrial

waste,

as

well

as

being

a

source

of

water

for

cooling in nuclear and other power plants.

Like rivers, oceans have been used as dumping grounds for waste of all kinds.

One of the recent sources of sea pollution is oil and millions of tons of it spill into the

sea each year. Oil not only pollutes beaches, it also kills fish and seabirds.

Passage 9

The home is a place where we spend a large part of our lives. We eat, sleep, play

and do many other activities here. We are

familiar with

every

chair, table, bed

and

every

little

ornament

that

gives

us

much

pleasure

and

comfort.

A

well- maintained

home is one where we can go to after a hard day?s work and when we need a place to

relax and rejuvenate our spirits.

Yet a comfortable and familiar home is not without danger. In fact, a home can

be a very dangerous place indeed. Consider first the electrical supply to our homes.

There

are

instances

of

people

connecting

too

many

electrical

appliances

to

a

single

socket, for example connecting the refrigerator, washing machine, iron, and the kettle

into one solitary socket using extension plugs. Such flagrant disregard for safety only

means one thing -- the fuse will keep on blowing. The same situation may be even

more dangerous in old houses with worn-out wiring which could easily result in a fire.

Besides

this

overloading

of

electrical

sockets,

other

dangers

are

also

present.

Touching an electrical switch with a wet hand is an invitation to an electrical shock. It

is a simple matter of drying the hand, yet in one?s haste after using the bathroom, the

hand is often quicker than the brain. This habit must be changed. Wiring contractors

tend to locate electrical sockets near the floor where a two-year-old can get at it easily.

It is advisable to cover these sockets so that. inquisitive hands do not get at them.

Most

modern

houses

now

have

concealed

wiring

in

the

walls.

A

careless

do-it- yourself handyman can easily give himself a nasty shock by driving an iron nail

into one of the hidden wires.

Many electrical appliances such as electric kettles, electric irons and cookers are

all

potentially

dangerous

if

used

carelessly.

It

is

up

to

the

user

to

recognize

the

dangers so that he can safeguard himself.

Another possible source of danger comes from the cylinder of cooking gas that is

present in almost all kitchens. The cylinder is made of sturdy metal and can withstand

a lot of abuse. Nevertheless there is a limit to the abuse it can take. Users who connect

sub- standard cylinder-heads to the cylinder and users who bump the cylinders around

are all asking for trouble. There are cases of gas cylinders exploding resulting in death

and serious injury. A little care on the part of the user can prevent dangerous accidents

from occurring.

Knives,

scissors,

can-openers

and

other

sharp

instruments

are

also

sources

of

danger.

In

any

hospital

one

can

see

a

lot

patients

seeking

treatment

for

cuts

and

bruises

caused

by

these

instruments.

Though

great

care

may

be

taken

while

using

these sharp instruments, accidents still may happen. One cannot guarantee that a knife

will not slip while cutting vegetables or that a plate will not break while it is being

washed.

Other

dangers

include

slippery

floors,

protruding

nails

on

walls,

non-drinkable

liquids

in

unlabelled

bottles,

broken

furniture,

uncovered

food,

unboiled

water

and

many

other

things.

These

items

may

not

be

dangerous

until

accidents

happen.

There

is

danger

everywhere.

We

can

only

recognize

potential

dangers and take the necessary precautions to prevent accidents from occurring in the

home.

Passage 10

With

the

invention

of

televisions,

many

forms

of

entertainments

have

been

replaced. Lively programs like television serials and world news, have removed from

us the need to read books or papers, to listen to radios or even to watch movies. In fact,

during

the

1970s,

when

televisions

were

first

introduced,

cinema

theatres

suffered

great losses as many people chose to stay in the comforts of their homes to watch their

favorite programs.

Indeed, the television brings the world into our house. Hence, by staying at home

and

pressing

some

buttons

world

happenings

are

immediately

presented

before

us.

Children

nowadays

develop

faster

in

language,

owing

to

the

early

exposure

to

television programs. At such tender age, it would be difficult for them to read books

or

papers.

Thus,

television

programs

are

a

good

source

of

learning

for

them.

Furthermore,

pronunciations

by

the

newscasters,

actors

or

actresses

are

usually

standardized,

hence

young

children

watching

these

programs

will

learn

the

?right?

pronunciations

too.

Owning

a

television

is

also

extremely

beneficial

to

working

parents

who

are

usually

too

busy

or

tired

to

take

their

kids

out

for

entertainments.

Surrounded

by

the

comforts

of

their

home,

the

family

can

have

a

chance

to

get

together and watch their favorite television programs.