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CHAPTER 1
绝对优势
Absolute advantage
: each
country could produce
one or more
commodities
at lower
real
cost than its trading partners. And each country
will benefit from specialization in
those
commodities
in
which
it
has
an
“
absolute
advantage
”
,
exporting
them
and
importing
other
commodities
which
it
produces
at
a
higher
real
cost
than
another
country.
相对优势
Comparative advantage:
trade
that will benefit both nations provided only that
their
relative cost, that is, their
ratios of their real costs
measured by
labor-hour
or
another
commodity
, are deferent from
two or more commodities.
In short, trade depends on comparative
cost or opportunity cost, and one nation can
profitably trade with another even
though its real cost are higher(or lower) in every
commodity.
Reasons for trade restrictions
1.
Many
countries
want
a
diversified
economy
to
be
less
dependent
on
foreign
countries both
economically and politically. In addition, it is
crucial for countries
to
protect
their
vital
industries,
which
are
strategically
related
to
stability
and
economic development.
2.
There is an
infant industry argument which maintains that a
new industry needs to
be
protected
until
the
labor
force
is
trained,
the
production
techniques
are
mastered and the
operation becomes large enough to enjoy the
economies of scale
and be able to
compete in the market.
3.
The
unfair
competition
argument
claims
that
protection
is
needed
when
foreign
firms
receive
subsidies
or
other
government
benefits
and
sell
good
abroad
at
below-
cost price to capture a market.
4.
Domestic
jobs
need
to
be
protected
from
cheap
foreign
labor,
especially
for
labor-intensive
industries such as textile industries, since
employment is crucial to
a
country
’
s stability.
5.
Some
countries
impose
restrictions
on
import
in
order
to
maintain
a
balance
of
trade
and balance of payments.
6.
There pure
political
reasons
. E.g. Arab nations did not
trade with Israel for many
years in
history.
关税
A tariff is a duty or fee levied on
goods being imported into a country.
反补贴税
Countervailing duty is collected
against bounty or grant during production,
transport
and export, etc.
反倾销税
Anti-dumping
duty
is
collected
when
importing
country
believes
that
there
is
a
dumping( a not universally
defined concept that can mean selling price in a
foreign
country is below domestic
selling price, world market price, or production
cost ).
Variable
levy
差额税
CHAPTER 2
International
rules for the interpretation of trade terms
(incoterms)
国际贸易术语解释通则
It aims to provide such
a
set of standardized terms
which mean
exactly the same to
both parties to a
contract and which will be
interpreted
in exactly same way by courts
in every
country.
1.
Group
E term: EXW
2.
Group F term: FCA, FAS, FOB
3.
Group C term:
CFR, CIF,CPT,CIP
4.
Group D term: DAF, DES, DEQ, DDU, DDP.
With
increasing
responsibilities,
costs,
and
risks
for
the
seller
and
decreasing
responsibilities,
costs, and risks for the buyer.
工厂交货价
EXW: Ex
…
works
货交承运人
FCA: Free Carrier
船边交货价
FAS: Free Along
Shipment
离岸价
FOB: Free On
Board
成本加运费
CFR: Cost And
Freight
CFR=FOB+F
到岸价
CIF:
Cost Insurance And Freight
CIF=FOB+F+I
运费付至
CPT: Carriage Paid
To
…
运费和保险付至
CIP: Carriage and
Insurance Paid To
…
边境交货
DAF: Delivered At
Frontier
目的港船上交货
DES:
Delivered Ex Ship
目的港码头交货
DEQ: Delivered Ex
Quay
未完税交货价格
DDU: Delivered
Duty Unpaid
完税交货价格
DDP:
delivered Duty Paid
CHAPTER
3
Cargo
packaging
is
needed
for
4
main
reasons:
protective
function,
loading
and
transport function, stowage function,
promotion function.
Types
of packaging
1. Bale
捆装
A bale is a
heap of material pressed together and tied with
rope or metal wire.
Effective
low-
cost
easy-to-handle
limited protection
2. Bags
Bags can be made of cotton, plastic,
paper or jute. They are ideal for cement,
fertilizer,
flour, chemicals and many
consumer products.
Low cost but easy to
be damaged by water, sweat, leakage and breakage.
3. Barrel/Drum
This
type
of
container
is
made
of
wood,
plastic,
or
metal.
It
is
used
for
liquid
or
greasy
cargoes such as casing for sausage.