(整理)Hofstede's_Cultural_Dimensions

Read the About . . . section on the right side of this page. Then review the definitions of

each Hofstede Dimension listed below. Following that, you can select the country or

countries you're interested in from the list in the left margin of this page.

On each country page you will find the unique Hofstede graphs depicting the Dimension

scores and other demographics for that country and culture - plus an explanation of how

they uniquely apply to that country.

* Description for each of Hofstede's Dimensions listed below

Power Distance Index (PDI)

that is the extent to which the less powerful members of

organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed

unequally. This represents inequality (more versus less), but defined from below, not from

above. It suggests that a society's level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much

as by the leaders. Power and inequality, of course, are extremely fundamental facts of any

society and anybody with some international experience will be aware that 'all societies

are unequal, but some are more unequal than others'.

Individualism (IDV)

on the one side versus its opposite, collectivism, that is the degree to

which individuals are inte-grated into groups. On the individualist side we find societies in

which

the

ties

between

individuals

are

loose:

everyone

is

expected

to

look

after

him/herself

and

his/her

immediate

family.

On

the

collectivist

side,

we

find

societies

in

which

people

from

birth

onwards

are

integrated

into

strong,

cohesive

in-groups,

often

extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) which continue protecting them

in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. The word 'collectivism' in this sense has no political

meaning:

it

refers

to

the

group,

not

to

the

state.

Again,

the

issue

addressed

by

this

dimension is an extremely fundamental one, regarding all societies in the world.

Masculinity

(MAS)

versus

its

opposite,

femininity,

refers

to

the

distribution

of

roles

between the genders which is another fundamental issue for any society to which a range

of

solutions

are

found.

The

IBM

studies

revealed

that

(a)

women's

values

differ

less

among societies than men's values; (b) men's values from one country to another contain

a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women's

values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to women's values on the other.

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The

assertive

pole

has

been

called

'masculine'

and

the

modest,

caring

pole

'feminine'.

The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the

masculine countries they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as the

men, so that these countries show a gap between men's values and women's values.

Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI

) deals with a society's tolerance for uncertainty and

ambiguity;

it

ultimately

refers

to

man's

search

for

Truth.

It

indicates

to

what

extent

a

culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured

situations.

Unstructured

situations

are

novel,

unknown,

surprising,

different

from

usual.

Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws

and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a

belief in absolute Truth; 'there can only be one Truth and we have it'. People in uncertainty

avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. The

opposite type, uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant of opinions different from

what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical

and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side. People

within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their

environment to express emotions.

Long-Term

Orientation

(LTO)

versus

short-term

orientation:

this

fifth

dimension

was

found in a study among students in 23 countries around the world, using a questionnaire

designed

by

Chinese

scholars

It

can

be

said

to

deal

with

Virtue

regardless

of

Truth.

Values

associated

with

Long

Term

Orientation

are

thrift

and

perseverance;

values

associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations,

and

protecting

one's

'face'.

Both

the

positively

and

the

negatively

rated

values

of

this

dimension

are

found

in

the

teachings

of

Confucius,

the

most

influential

Chinese

philosopher who lived around 500 B.C.; however, the dimension also applies to countries

without a Confucian heritage.

Hofstede's Framework for Assessing Culture

Hofs

work related values:

Low

vs.

high

power

distance

-

This

dimension

measures

how

much

the

less

powerful

members

of

institutions and organizations expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. In cultures with low

power distance (e.g. Ireland, Austria, Australia, Denmark, New Zealand), people expect and accept power

relations that are more consultative or democratic. People relate to one another more as equals regardless

of

formal

positions.

Subordinates

are

more

comfortable

with

and

demand

the

right

to

contribute

to

and

critique

the

decisions

of

those

in

power.

In

cultures

with

high

power

distance

(e.g.

Malaysia),

the

less

powerful accept power relations that are autocratic or paternalistic. Subordinates acknowledge the power of

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others based on their formal, hierarchical positions. Thus,

Low vs. High Power Distance

does not measure

or attempt to measure a culture's objective,

power differences.

Individualism

vs.

collectivism

-

This

dimension

measures

how

much

members

of

the

culture

define

themselves apart from their group memberships. In individualist cultures, people are expected to develop

and display their individual personalities and to choose their own affiliations. In collectivist cultures, people

are defined and act mostly as a member of a long-term group, such as the family, a religious group, an age

cohort, a town, or a profession, among others.

Masculinity vs. femininity

- This dimension measures the value placed on traditionally male or female

values

(as

understood

in

most

Western

cultures).

In

so- called

'masculine'

cultures,

people

value

competitiveness,

assertiveness,

ambition,

and

the

accumulation

of

wealth

and

material

possessions.

In

so-called 'feminine' cultures, people value relationships and quality of life. This dimension is often renamed

by

users

of

Hofstede's

work,

e.g.

to

Quantity

of

Life

vs.

Quality

of

Life

.

Another

reading

of

the

same

dimension holds that in 'M' cultures, the differences between gender roles are more dramatic and less fluid

than in 'F' cultures

Low vs. high uncertainty avoidance

- This dimension measures how much members of a society attempt

to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. In cultures with high uncertainty avoidance, people prefer

explicit rules (e.g. about religion and food) and formally structured activities, and employees tend to remain

longer

with

their

present

employer.

In

cultures

with

low

uncertainty

avoidance,

people

prefer

implicit

or

flexible rules or guidelines and informal activities. Employees tend to change employers more frequently.

Michael Harris Bond and his collaborators subsequently found a fifth dimension which was initially called

Confucian dynamism. Hofstede later incorporated this into his framework as:

Long vs. short term orientation

- This dimension describes a society's

attached to the future versus the past and present. In long term oriented societies, people value actions and

attitudes that affect the future: persistence/perseverance, thrift, and shame. In short term oriented societies,

people

value

actions

and

attitudes

that

are

affected

by

the

past

or

the

present:

normative

statements,

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