-
1.
Design
feature
(
识别特征
)
refers to the defining properties of human
language that distinguish it
from any
animal system of communication.
2.
Productivity
(
能产性
)
refers
to
the
ability
that
people
have
in
making
and
comprehending
indefinitely
large quantities of sentences in their
native language.
3.
arbitrariness
(
任
意
性
)
Arbitrariness
refers
to
the
phenomenon
that
there
is
no
motivated
relationship
between a linguistic form and its
meaning.
4.
symbol
(
符号
) Symbol
refers
to
something
such
as
an
object,
word,
or
sound
that
represents
something
else by association or
convention.
5.
discreteness
(
离散性
) Discreteness refers
to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language
are
meaningfully distinct.
6.
displacement
(
不受时空限制的特性
) Displacement
refers to the fact that human language can be used
to talk about things that are not in
the immediate situations of its users.
7.
duality
of
structure
(
结构二重性
) The
organization
of
language
into
two
levels,
one
of
sounds,
the
other
of meaning, is known as duality of
structure.
8.
culture transmission
(
文化传播
) Culture transmission
refers to the fact that language is passed
on from one generation to the next
through teaching and learning, rather than by
inheritance.
9.
interchangeability
(
互换性
) Interchangeability
means that any human being can be both a producer
and a receiver of messages.
1.
★
What is
language?
Language is a
system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication. This definition has
captured the main features of
language.
First, language is
a system.
Second, language
is arbitrary in the sense.
The third feature of language is
symbolic nature.
2.
★
What are the design
features of language?
Language has seven design features as
following:
1) Productivity.
2) Discreteness.
3) Displacement
4) Arbitrariness.
5) Cultural transmission
6) Duality of structure.
7) Interchangeability.
3.
Why do we say language is a
system?
Because elements of
language are combined according to rules, and
every language contains a set of
rules.
By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements
or the particular ways or designs in which
a
language
operates.
And
the
sounds,
the
words
and
the
sentences
are
used
in
fixed
patterns
that
speaker
of a
language can understand each other.
4.
★
(Function of language.)
According to Halliday, what are the initial
functions of
children’
s
language? And what are the three
functional components of adult
language?
I.
Halliday uses the following terms to
refer to the initial functions of
children’
s
language:
1) Instrumental
function.
工具功能
2)
Regulatory function.
调节功能
3) Representational function.
表现功能
4)
Interactional function.
互动功能
5) Personal function.
自指性功能
6)
Heuristic function.
启发功能
[osbQtq`kf`h]
7)
Imaginative function.
想象功能
II.
Adult
language has three functional components as
following:
1) Interpersonal
components.
人际
2)
Ideational components.
概念
3) Textual
components.
语篇
Chapter 1
Language
语言
Chapter 2
Linguistics
语言学
1.
general
linguistics and descriptive linguistics
(
普通语言学与描写语言学
) The former
deals with
language in general whereas
the latter is concerned with one particular
language.
2.
synchronic linguistics and diachronic
linguistics
(
共时语言学与历时语言学
) Diachronic
linguistics
traces the historical
development of the language and records the
changes that have taken place in
it
between successive points in time. And synchronic
linguistics presents an account of language as
it is at some particular point in time.
3.
theoretical linguistics and applied
linguistics
(
理论语言学与应用语言学
) The
former copes with
languages with a view
to establishing a theory of their structures and
functions whereas the latter
is
concerned
with
the
application
of
the
concepts
and
findings
of
linguistics
to
all
sorts
of
practical
tasks.
4.
microlinguistics
and
macrolinguistics
(
微观语言学与宏观语言学
)
The
former
studies
only
the
structure
of language system
whereas the latter deals with everything that is
related to languages.
5.
langue and
parole
(
语言与言语
)
The former refers to the abstract linguistics
system shared by all
the
members
of
a
speech
community
whereas
the
latter
refers
to
the
concrete
act
of
speaking
in
actual
situation by an
individual speaker.
6.
competence
and
performance
(
语言能力与语言运用
)
The
former
is
one
’
s
knowledge
of
all
the
linguistic
regulation systems whereas the latter
is the use of language in concrete
situation.
7.
speech
and
writing
(
口头语与书面语
)
Speech
is
the
spoken
form
of
language
whereas
writing
is
written
codes, gives
language new scope.
8.
linguistics
behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior
(
语言行为潜势与实际语言行为
)
People
actually says on a certain
occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics
behavior. And each of
possible
linguistic items that he could have said is
linguistic behavior potential.
9.
syntagmatic
relation and paradigmatic relation
(
横组合关系与纵聚合关系
) The former
describes the
horizontal dimension of a
language while the latter describes the vertical
dimension of a language.
10.
verbal
communication and non-verbal
communication
(
言语交际与非言语交际
) Usual use of
language as
a
means
of
transmitting
information
is
called
verbal
communication.
The
ways
we
convey
meaning
without
using language is called non-verbal
communication.
1.
★
How does John Lyons
classify linguistics
?
According to John Lyons, the field of
linguistics as a whole can be divided into several
subfields
as following:
1) General linguistics and descriptive
linguistics.
2) Synchronic
linguistics and diachronic linguistics.
3) Theoretical linguistics and applied
linguistics.
4)
Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.
2.
Explain
the
three
principles
by
which
the
linguist
is
guided:
consistency,
adequacy
and
simplicity
.
1) Consistency means that there should
be no contradictions between different parts of
the theory
and the
description.
2)
Adequacy
means
that
the
theory
must
be
broad
enough
in
scope
to
offer
significant
generalizations.
3) Simplicity requires us to be as
brief and economic as possible.
3.
★
What are the sub-branches
of linguistics within the language
system
?
Within
the language system there are six sub-branches as
following:
1) Phonetics.
语音学
is a study of speech
sounds of all human languages.
2) Phonology.
音位学
studies about the sounds and sound
patterns of a speaker’s native
language.
3) Morphology.
形态学
studies about how a word
is formed.
4) Syntax.
句法学
studies about whether a
sentence is grammatical or not.
5) Semantics.
语义学
studies about the meaning of language, including
meaning of words and meaning
of
sentences.
6) Pragmatics.
语用学
★
The scope of language:
Linguistics is referred to as a
scientific study of language.
★
The scientific
process of linguistic study:
It
involves four stages: collecting data, forming a
hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and
drawing conclusions.
Chapter 3
Phonetics
语音学
1.
articulatory
phonetics
(
发音语音学
)
The study of how speech organs produce the sounds
is called
articulatory
phonetics.
2.
acoustic
phonetics
(
声学语音学
)
The
study
of
the
physical
properties
and
of
the
transmission
of
speech
sounds
is called acoustic phonetics.
3.
auditory
phonetics
(
听觉语音学
)
The
study
of
the
way
hearers
perceive
speech
sounds
is
called
auditory
phonetics.
4.
consonant
(
辅音
) Consonant is a speech
sound where the air form the language is either
completely
blocked, or partially
blocked, or where the opening between the speech
organs is so narrow that the
air
escapes with audible friction.
5.
vowel
(
元音
) is defined
as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs
is not blocked in any way
and is
pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.
6.
bilabials
(
双唇音
)
Bilabials
means
that
consonants
for
which
the
flow
of
air
is
stopped
or
restricted
by the two lips.
[p]
[b] [m] [w]
7.
affricates
(
塞擦音
) The sound
produced by stopping the airstream and then
immediately releasing it
slowly is
called affricates. [t
X
]
[d
Y
] [tr] [dr]
8.
glottis
(
声门
) Glottis is
the space between the vocal cords.
9.
rounded
vowel
(
圆唇元音
)
Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound
pronounced by the lips forming
a
circular opening. [u:] [u]
[
OB
]
[
O
]
10.
diphthongs
(
双元音
) Diphthongs are
produced by moving from one vowel position to
another through
intervening
positions.[ei][ai][
O
i]
[
Q
u][au]
11.
triphthongs
(
三合元音
) Triphthongs are those
which are produced by moving from one vowel
position
to another and then rapidly
and continuously to a third one. [ei
Q
][ai
Q
][
O
i
Q
] [
Q
u
Q
][au
Q
]
12.
lax vowels
(
松元音
) According to
distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are
classified tense
vowels and lax vowels.
All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the
short vowels,[e] is a tense
vowel as
well, and the rest short vowels are lax
vowels.
1.
★
How are consonants
classified in terms of different
criteria?
The consonants in
English can be described in terms of four
dimensions.
1)
The position of the soft
palate.
2)
The presence or the absence of vocal-
cord vibration.
3)
The place of
articulation.
4)
The manner of articulation.
2.
★
How are vowels classified
in terms of different criteria?
Vowel sounds are differentiated by a
number of factors.
1)
The state of
the velum
2)
The position of the tongue.
3)
The openness
of the mouth.
4)
The shape of the lips.
5)
The length of
the vowels.
6)
The tension of the muscles at
pharynx.
3.
★
What are the three sub-
branches of phonetics? How do they differ from
each other?
Phonetics has
three sub-branches as following:
1)
Articulatory
phonetics
is
the
study
of
how
speech
organs
produce
the
sounds
is
called
articulatory
phonetics.
2)
Acoustic
phonetics
is the study of the physical
properties and of the transmission of speech
sounds is called acoustic
phonetics.
3)
Auditory phonetics
is the
study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is
called auditory
phonetics.
4.
★
What are the commonly used
phonetic features for consonants and vowels
respectively?
I. The
frequently used phonetic features for consonants
include the following:
1)
Voiced.
2)
Nasal.
3)
Consonantal.
4)
Vocalic.
5)
Continuant.
6)
Anterior.
7)
Coronal.
8)
Aspirated.
II.
The most common phonetic features for vowels
include the following:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
High.
Low.
Front.
Back.
Rounded.
Tense.