合作原则的英文表述

4.1 The maxim of Quality:

(i) do not say what you believe to be false.

(ii) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence

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4.2 The maxim of Quantity:

current purposes of the exchange

(ii) Do not make your contribution more informative than is

required

4.3 The maxim of Relation:

4.4 The maxim of Manner:

(i) avoid obscurity of expression.

(ii) avoid ambiguity.

(iii) be brief

(iv) be orderly.

From what mentioned above, we may know that the Cooperative

Principle enables one participant in a conversation to communicate on

the assumption that the other participant is being cooperative. These

four maxims form a necessary part of the description of linguistic

meaning in that they explain how it is that the speakers often ―mean

more than they say‖ in their communications.

may decide to withhold whatever information we possess:‘ No

comment!‘ We may inadvertently infringe a maxim or we can secretly

violate a maxim

—

e.g. A could maliciously and falsely tell B that Janet

had walked in the opposite direction from the post office. Or

–

more

importantly

–

we can make a blatant show of breaking one of the

maxims (Grice terms this flouting a maxim), in order to lead the

addressee to look for a covert, implied meaning.

(3)

members of The BBC Players. ( Implicature: One or more of them are

no longer members of The BBC Players.)

Generally speaking,

maxim combined with the hearer‘s assumption that th

e speaker has

nor really abandoned the co- operative principle leads to an

implicature

four maxims, expressed in the imperative mood have sometimes

been misunderstood as instructions for a speaker to behave in

conversation.

le violating the Cooperative Principle in the use of

euphemisms

In the light of the foregoing literature review and the theoretical

bases, we know that euphemisms or euphemistic expressions are

important and people often use them in communication. In reality, it

can be found that these diplomats and statesmen etc. also use

euphemisms or euphemistic expressions in the question-answer

patterns. These statesmen make sharp things or unpleasant things

sound pleasant etc. otherwise the use of euphemisms may even

cause misunderstandings. So the next we will talk about

communication with the theories of Cooperative Principle. For

example, to be specific, diplomatic euphemisms of press conferences

are mainly chosen as the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive

word or expression for one that is harsh, indelicate or unpleasant to

the other side. They are chosen from both the lexical approach and

the rhetorical approach.

In communication like the question-answer patterns in press

conferences, generally people or participants are required to observe

the CP in order to make their conversation moves forward smoothly

and successfully. But in reality, in order to meet a certain

communicative need, especially in press conferences concerning

diplomacy, actually people seldom speaks by always faithfully

observing these four maxims of the CP. Therefore Grice himself also

suggests 5 ways participants can deal with these maxims. First,

speakers can straightforwardly follow the maxims, that is, they can

speak the truth while giving just enough relevant information in a

clear, unambiguous, succinct and orderly manner. Many people do

just that most of time. Second, someone may violate a maxim, as you

would do if you told a deliberate lie. A third thing that can happen is

that a speaker can ?opt out‘ of a maxim, this seems to be an

uncommon occurrence. The fourth possibility is the maxim clash;

cases in which you would have to violate one maxim in order to fulfill

another. And perhaps this is the most case of violation of the maxims

in press conferences. The fifth and most intriguing way to deal with

the maxims of conversation is to flout one of them. When a maxim is

flouted, a speaker doesn't observe the maxim, but cannot be accused

of violating it either, because the transgression is so flagrant that it is

totally obvious that the speaker knows he or she is not observing it

and realizes everyone else in the conversation knows it too.

The existence of the maxims of the CP makes the conversational

implicature possible especially on the conditions like in press

conferences etc.. Conversational implicature allows a speaker of any

side in press conferences to convey meaning beyond what is literally

expressed. Speakers in press conferences can often use euphemisms

or euphemistic expressions to produce conversational implicature or

more meaning that the hearers can also figure out its real intentions

rather than the literal meaning by violating some certain maxims.

5.1. Violation of Quality Maxim

true or the fact and making irresponsible and insincere remarks by the

speakers. It can produce some specifical content: humor, or disguise

the intention such as Ministry of Defence for Ministry of War, life

insurence for insurance when you are dead, freedom fighters for

terrorists.

violate Quality Maxim in order to express unpleasant things or ideas

etc. in an indirect, roundabout and pleasant way. Therefore if hearers

want to know the real intentions , they should infer the conversational

implicature from the illocutionary meaning based on the special

context. Moreover hyperbole and understatement also don't obey the

Quality Maxim, for all these contribution are true . Let us look at some

examples as follows:

(4) Q: Britain and France both put troops on standby alert … for

possible movement into Kosovo. While … has the U.S. put any units on

stand-by for a possible movement to Kosovo?

A:

In view of the fact that … our forces remain at their current state

of readiness. There … increase that state of alertness at this point.

Obviously… on short stand

-

by… air operations, would… .

In the above Q-A patterns of the transcripts, we can see diplomatic

euphemisms like ―possible movement‖, ―at their current state of

readiness‖ and ―air operation‖ etc. are used in press conferences that

violate the Quality Maxim. From the specific context we know that

here ―possible movement‖ mainly means ―possible military attack‖,

―at their current state of readiness‖ refers to ―at their current state of

fighting ‖ and ―air operation‖ refers to ―air war‖ or ―air fight‖ etc.. Still

we can find more examples violating Quality Maxim of the CP in press

conferences li

ke ―Ministry of Defense‖ for ―Ministry of War‖, ―entering

into Kosovo‖ or ―go into Kosovo‖ for ―invade Kosovo‖ or ―invasion‖

and ―information‖ for ―military intelligence‖ and also ―active defense‖

for ―attack‖ etc.. By saying that, the authority can distor

t the facts to

some extent and also reduce its bad impressions on the public. Hence

the authority can present a false picture to the public and to beautify

or disguise whatever they have done.

5.2 Violation of Quantity Maxim

information or by either providing less or more information than

actually needed. Strictly speaking, acronym and abbreviation, two

main ways of the formation of euphemism, are the two main ways of

violating the Quantity Maxim. For example, execute is for execute

death penalty, I need to go is for I need to go to the lavatory, commfu

for complete monumental military fuck up , S.O.S for

son-of-a-bitch.