-
Chapter one
Introduction
一、定义
1.
语言学
Linguistics
Linguistics is generally
defined as the scientific study of language.
2.
普通语言学
General
Linguistics
The study of
language as a whole is often called General
linguistics.
3.
语言
language
Language is a system of
arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication.
语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.
识别特征
Design
Features
It refers to the defining poperties of
human language that distinguish it from any animal
system of
communication.
语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的
限定性特征。
Arbitrariness
任意性
Productivity
多产性
Duality
双重性
Displacement
移位性
Cultural
transmission
文化传递
⑴
arbitrariness
There is no logical connection between
meanings and sounds.
P.S
the arbitrary nature of
language is a sign of sophistication and it makes
it possible for language
to have an
unlimited source of expressions
⑵
Productivity
Animals are quite limited in the
messages they are able to send.
⑶
Duality
Language is a system, which consists of
two sets of structures ,or two levels.
⑷
Displacement
Language can be used to refer to
contexts removed from the immediate situations of
the speaker.
⑸
Cultural transmission
Human capacity for language
has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and
learned the details of
any language
system. this showed that language is culturally
transmitted. not by instinct. animals are
born with the capacity to produce the
set of calls peculiar to their species.
5.
语言能力
Competence
Competence is the ideal
user’s knowledge of the rules of his
language.
6.
语言运用
performance
Performance is the actual
realization of this knowledge in linguistic
communication.
语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
7.
历时语言学
Diachronic
linguistics
The study of
language change through time. a diachronic study
of language is a historical study, which
studies the historical development of
language over a period of time.
8.
共时语言学
Synchronical
linguistics
The study of a
given language at a given time.
9.
语言
langue
The abstract linguistic
system shared by all members of a speech
community.
10.
言语
parole
The realization of langue
in actual use.
11.
规定性
Prescriptive
It aims to lay down rules for ”correct”
behavior, to tell people what they should say and
what should
not say.
12.
描述性
Descriptive
A linguistic study
describes and analyzes the language people
actually use.
二、知识点
ge is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s
a social activity carried out in a certain social
environment by human beings.
语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行
的一种社会活动。
2.
几种观点和现象的提出者：
⑴瑞士语言学家
Saussure
Saussure:Langue
和
parole
的区别
⑵
U.S.A linguist
y
美国语言学家
y
in1950
针对
Saussure’s langu
e&parole
提出
Competence
< br>和
performance
⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家
Sapir---language is a
purely human and non-instinctive method of
communication ideas, emotions and
desires by means of voluntarily
produced symbols.
Hall----
language is the institution whereby humans
communicate and interact with each other by
means of habitually used oral-auditory
arbitrary symbols.
Chomsky
---from now on I will consider language to be a
set of sentences, each finite in length and
constructed out of a finite set of
elements.
⑷
U.S.A
Linguist Charles
Hockett
美国语言学家
Charles Hockett
提出了语言的识别特征
design
features
word ’language’
preceded by the zero
-article ,it
implies that linguistics studies not any
particular
language.
Language
一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。<
/p>
order to
discover the nature of the underlying language
system ,what the linguists has to do first if
to study language facts.
ge is a complicated entity with
multiple layers and facts, so it's hardly possible
for the
linguistics to deal with it all
at once.
判断题
drew the attention of the linguists were the
sounds used in languages.
最先引起语言学家注意
的是语言的发音。
三、问答题
are major branches of linguistics?
what does each study?
Phonetics----
it’s defined as
the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s
concerned with all the
sounds that
occur in the world’s languages.
Phonology---the study of sounds
systems
—
the inventory of
distinctive sounds that occur in a language
and the patterns into which they fall.
Morphology---
It’s a branch
of a grammar which studies the internal structure
of words and the rules
by which words
are formed.
Syntax-------
it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the
sentence structure of a language.
Semantics---
It’s simply
defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.
Pragmatics---the study of
meaning in context of words.
Sociolinguistics
—
the study
of language with reference to society.
Psycholinguistics---the study of
language with reference to the working of the
mind.
Applied linguistics
---the application of linguistic principles and
theories to language teaching and
learning.
do we
say language is arbitrary?
Language is arbitrary in the sense that
there is no intrinsic connection between the
sounds that people
use and the objects
to which these sounds refer.
The fact that different languages have
different words for the same object is a good
illustration of the
arbitrary nature of
language, it’s only our tacit agreement of
utterance and concept a
t work and not
any
innate relationship bound up in the
utterance.
A typical
example to illustrate the ‘arbitrariness’ of
language is ‘a rose by any other name would smell
as sweet’.
3.
what makes modern linguistics different from
traditional grammar?
Modern
linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are
based on authentic and mainly spoken
language date.
现代语言学是描述性的，其研究
以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。
traditional grammar is prescriptive. it
is based on’ high’ written language.
<
/p>
传统语法是规定性的，研究
‘
高级
’
书面语。
modern linguistics mainly synchronic
or diachronic? why
Modern
linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the
present-day language. unless the various
states of a language are successfully
studied, it will not be possible to describe
language from a
diachronic point of
view.
现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言
。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，
否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。<
/p>
enjoys priority
in modern linguistics, speech or writings?
Speech enjoys for the
following reasons:
⑴
Speech precedes writing in
terms of evolution.
⑵
A large amount of
communication is carried out in speech than in
writing.
⑶
speech
is the form in which infants acquire their native
language.
is Saussure’s
distinction between langue and parole similar to
Chomsky’s ?
Both Saussure
and Chomsky make the distinction between the
abstract language system and the actual
use of language. their purpose is to
single out the language system for serious study
Two linguists idea differ
in that Saussure took a sociological view of
language, Chomsky looks at
language
from a psychological point of view, competence is
a property of the mind of each individual.
distinction between langue
and parole?
⑴
langue is abstract,
relatively stable
⑵
parole is
concrete, varies from person to person, from
situation to situation.
1/ What is
linguistics?
什么是语言学？
Linguistics is generally defined as the
scientific study of language. It studies not any
particular
language, but languages in
general.
2/ The
scope of linguistics
语言学的研究范畴
The
study of language as a whole is often called
general linguistics. (
普通语言学
)
The study of sounds, which are used in
linguistic communication, is called
phonetics.
（语音学）
The study of how sounds are put
together and used in communication is called
phonology.
（音系学）
The study of the way in which morphemes
are arranged to form words is called morphology.
（形态
学）
The study of how morphemes and words
are combined to form sentences is called
syntax
（句法学）
The
study of meaning in language is called semantics.
（语义学）
The study
of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.
（语用学）
The study
of language with reference to society is called
socio-linguistics.
（社会语言学）
The study of language with reference to
the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics.
（心理语言
学）
The study of
applications (as the recovery of speech ability)
is generally known as applied linguistics.
（应用语言学）
But in a
narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the
application of linguistic
principles
and theories to language teaching and learning,
especially the teaching of foreign and
second language.
Other related branches
include anthropological linguistics,
（人类语言学）
neurological linguistics,
（神经语言学）
mathematical linguistics,
（数字语言学）
and computational
linguistics.
（计算机
语言学）
3/ Some
important distinctions in linguistics
语言学研究中的几对基本概念
Prescriptive and descriptive
规定与描写
If a
linguistic study describes and analyzes the
language people actually use, it is said to be
descriptive,
if it aims to lay down
rules to tell people what they should say and what
they should not say, it is said
to be
prescriptive.
Modern linguistics
differs from traditional grammar. Traditional
grammar is prescriptive while modern
linguistics is descriptive. The task of
linguists is supposed to describe the language
people actually use,
whether it is
“correct” or not.
Synchronic and diachronic
共时和历时
The
description of a language at some point in time is
a synchronic study; the description of a
language as it changes through time is
a diachronic study. In modern linguistics,
synchronic study is
more important.
Speech and
writing
口头语与书面语
Speech and writing are the two major
media of communication. Modern linguistics regards
the spoken
form of language as primary,
but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech
precedes writing; 2.
There are still
many languages that have only the spoken form; 3.
In terms of function, the spoken
language is used for a wider range of
purposes than the written, and carries a larger
load of
communication than the written.
Langue and
parole
语言和言语
The
Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction
between langue and parole early 20th century.
Langue refers to the abstract
linguistic system shared by all the members of a
speech community, and
parole refers to
the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure
made the distinction in order to single
out one aspect of language for serious
study. He believes what linguists should do is to
abstract langue
from parole, to
discover the regularities governing the actual use
of language and make them the
subjects
of study of linguistics.
Competence and performance
语言能力和语言运用
Proposed by American linguist N.
Chomsky in the late 1950’s.
He defines competence as the ideal
user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and
performance
the actual realization of
this knowledge in linguistic communication. He
believes the task of the
linguists is
to discover and specify the language rules.
Chapter Two Phonology
一、定义
1.
宽式音标
Broad
transcription
The
transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols
only.
2.
窄式音标
Narrow
transcription
The
transcription of speech sound with letters symbols
and the diacritics.
3.
清音
V
oiceless
When the vocal cords are
drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without
causing vibration ,the
sounds produced
in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.
4.
浊音
V
oicing
Sounds
produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are
called voiced sounds.
5.
元音
V
owel
The sounds in the production of which
no articulators come very close together and the
air stream
passes through the vocal
tract without obstruction are called vowels.
6.
辅音
Consonants
The sounds in the
production of which there is an obstruction of the
air stream at some point of the
vocal
tract are called consonants.
7.
音位
Phoneme
The basic unit in
phonology, it’s a collection of distinctive
phonetic features.
8.
音位变体
Allophones
Different phones which can
represent a phoneme in different environments are
called the allophones
of that phoneme.
9.
音素
phone
A phonetic unit or segment.
it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it’s a
speech sound we use
when speaking a
language.
10.
最小对立对
Minimal
pair
When two different
forms are identical in every way except for one
sound segment which occurs in
the same
place in the strings, the two words are said to
form a minimal pair.
11.
超切分特征
Suprasegmental
The phonemic features that occur above
the level of the segment are called suprasegmental
features.
the main suprasegmental
features include stress ,intonation and tone.
12.
互补分布
complementary distribution
P35
Two allophones of the same phoneme are
said to be in complementary distribution.
13.
语言的语音媒介
Phonic
medium of language
The limited range of sounds which are
meaningful in human communication and are of
interest to
linguistic studies are the
phonic medium of language.
在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。
14.
爆破音
stops
When a obstruction created
by the speech organs is total or complete, the
speech sound produced with
the
obstruction released and the air passing out again
is called a stop or a plosive.
they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]
二、知识点
tics resulting from careful
investigations show that there have been
over5,000languages in the
world, about
two thirds of which have not had written form.
2. of the two media of
language,speech is more basic than writing.
ic
组成
⑴
Articulatory phonetics
发音语音学
longest established,
mostly developed
⑵
Auditory
phonetics
听觉语音学
⑶
Acoustic
phonetics
声学语音学
latoryApparatus /Organs of Speech
Pharyngeal
cavity
–
咽腔
Oral ...
–
口腔
greatest
source of modification of air stream found here
Nasal …–
鼻腔
tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more
varieties of articulation than any other, the
extreme back of the tongue can be
raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be
thus produced
as is used in Arabic and
French.
ction between the
back of the tongue and the velar area results in
the pronunciation of[k]
and[g],the
narrowing of space between the hard palate and the
front of the tongue leads to the
sound[j];the obstruction created
between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar
ridge results in the
sounds[t]and[d].
consonants: [m] / [n] /
[η]
9. A Phone is a phonetic unit or
segment.
tial
rules
例子
If three consonants should cluster
together at the beginning of a word, the
combination should obey
the following
three rules:
⑴
the first
phoneme must be /s/
⑵
the second phoneme must be
/p/ or /t/ or /k/
⑶
the third phoneme must be
/l/ or /r/ or /w
h has four
basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising
tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone
三、问答题
are the three branches of phonetics?
how do they contribute to the study of speech
sound?
Articulatory
—
describes the way our
speech organs work to produce the speech sounds
and how they
differ.
Auditory-
–
studies
the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches
the important conclusion that
phonetic
identity is only a theoretical ideal.
Acoustic-
–
studies
the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way
sound travel from the speaker to
the
hearer.
发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出
语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。
听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。
声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者
之间的传播方式。
are
the English consonants classified?
By place of
articulation and By manner of articulation
do phonetics and phonology
differ in their focus of study? who do you think
will be more
interested in the
different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a
phonetician or a philologist? why?
语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同
?
语音学
家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别
?
为什
么
?
Phonetics
—
description
of all speech sounds and their find
differences.
Phonology
—
description of sound
systems of particular languages and how sounds
function to
distinguish
meaning.
A
phonetician would be more interested in such
differences cos such differences will not cos
differences in meaning.
’s a phone? how is it different from a
phoneme? how are allophone
s related to
a phoneme?
Phone
—
a speech
sound ,a phonetic unit.
Phoneme---a collection of abstract
sound features, a phonological unit.
Allophones---actual realization of a
phoneme in different phonetic contexts.
is a minimal pair and a
minimal set? why is it important to identify the
minimal set in a
language?
为什
么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要
?
Minimal pair
—
two
sound combinations identical in every way except
in one sound element that
occurs in the
same position.
除了出现在同一位置的一个
语音成分不同外
,
其他部分都一样的两个语音组合
.
Minimal
set
—
a group of sound
combinations with the above feature.
一组具有上述特征的语音组合
.
By identifying the minimal pair or the
minimal set of a language, a philologist can
identify its
phonemes.
通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组
,
音位学家能辨别出它的音位
.
n
with examples how broad transcription and narrow
one transcription differ?
Broad
transcription
—
one letter
symbol for one sound.
Narrow
transcription
—
diacritics are
added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer
differences
between sounds.
n the sequential rule ,the assimilation
rule and the deletion rule.
有序规则
Sequential rules
Rules that
govern the combination of sounds in a particular
language.
同化规则
Assimilation rules
The assimilation rule
assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a
feature of a sequential p
honeme,
thus making the two phones similar.
省略规则
Deletion
rule
It’s a phonological
rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted
although its orthographically
represented.
Chapter Three Morphology
一、定义
1.
词素
Morpheme
The basic unit
in the study of morphology and the smallest
meaningful unit of language.
2.
自由词素
Free
Morpheme
Free morphemes are independent units of
meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.
3.
黏着词素
Bound
morphemes
Bound morphemes are these morphemes
that canot be used by themselves, must be combined
with
other morphemes to form words that
can be used independently.
4.
词根
Root
Root is the base form of a word which
cannot be further analyzed without total loss of
identity.
5.
词缀
Affix
The
collective term for the type of formative that can
be used only when added to another
morpheme.
6.
曲折词缀
inflectional affixes
The
manifestation of grammatical relationships through
the addition of inflectional affixes, such as
number, tense, degree and case.
7.
派生词缀
Derivational affixes
The manifestation of relation between
stems and affixes through the addition of
derivational affixes.
8.
词干
Stem
A
stem is
the existing form
to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem
can be a bound
root ,a free morpheme,
or a derived form itself.
9
.
形态学规则
Morphological rules
They are rules that govern which affix
can be added to what type of stem to form a new
word.
10.
前缀
Prefix
Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem
,but usually do not change the part of speech of
the
original w
ord,
exceptions are the prefixes
‘be
-
‘ and
‘en(m)
-
‘
11.
后缀
Suffix
Suffixes are added to the end of stems,
they modify the meaning of the original word and
in many
cases change its part of
speech. using the morphological rules, we must
guard against
Over-generalization.
二、知识点
Inflectional morphology
logy
Derivational morphology
Free morphemes
Morphemes
Root
Bound morphemes
Inflectional affixes
Affixes
Prefix
Derivational
affixes
words maybe said to contain a root
morpheme.
Suffix
nd features:
⑴
orthographically, a
compound can be written as one word, two separate
words with or without a
hyphen in
between.
⑵
Syntactically, the part of
speech of a compound is determined by the last
element.
⑶
semantically, the meaning
of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from
the meanings of all its
component
Chapter Four
Syntax
一、定义
1.
句子
sentence
A structurally independent
unit that usually comprises a number of words to
form a complete
statement, question or
command.
2.
语言运用
Linguistic
competence
The system of
internalized linguistic knowledge of a language
speaker.
3.
谓语
Predicate
The part of a sentence
which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and
which says something about
the subject
is grammatically called predicate.
4.
定式子句
Finite
Clause
A clause that takes
a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time
stands structurally alone.
5.
从属子句
Embedded
Clause (E C)
In a complete
sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause
is normally called an E C .
6.
主要子句
Matrix
Clause
In a complexed
sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is
called a matrix clause.
7.<
/p>
层次结构
Hierarchical structure
The
sentence structure that groups words
into structural constituents and shows the
syntactic
categories of each structural
constituent, such as NP and VP.
8.
语法关系
Grammatical
relations
The structural
and logical functional relations between every
noun phrase and sentence.
9.
句法类型
Syntactic
category
A word
or phrase that performs a particular grammatical
function such as the subject or object.
10.
表层结构
S-structure
A level of
syntactic representation after the operation of
necessary syntactic movement.
< br>11.
深层结构
D-structure
A level of syntactic
representation before the operation of necessary
syntactic movement.
12.
普遍语法
General
grammar
A system of
linguistic knowledge which consists of some
general principles and parameters about
nature language.
13.
移动
α
规则
Move α
A general
movement rule accounting for the syntactic
behavior of any constituent movement.
14.
句法移位
Syntactic
movement
Syntactic movement occurs when a
constituent moves out of its original place to a
new position.
15.
转换原则
Transformation rules
Syntactic
movement is dictated by rules traditionally called
transformational rules, whose operation
may change the syntactic representation
of a sentence.
16.X
标杆理论
X-bar
theory
A general and highly abstract schema
that collapses all phrases structure rules into a
single
format :X”→
（
Spec
）
X(Compl).
一种泛指的、高度抽象的图示，它把所有的词组结构规则概括为一种程式
X”→
（
Spec
）
X(Compl)
a:
X”
b:
X”
Spec X’
Spec
X’
X’
X
compl
X
complement
NP ’the student who likes linguistics’
consists of Det, N and S with Det b
eing
the Specifier ,N the
head, S the
complement. NP(…)
有冠词、名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语，名词是
核心词，子句
是补足语。
二、知识点
这个单词源于
Greek,
本义是<
/p>
arrangement.
2.
我们把
syntax
的学习看作
a system of rules that govern
the formation of grammatical sentence.
3.A major goal of linguistics is to
show with a consistent and explicit grammatical
theory how
syntactic rules account for
this grammatical knowledge.
4.
判断题：
the
syntactic rules of any language are finite in
number ,and yet there is no limit to the
number of sentences native speakers of
that language are able to produce and comprehend.
5.
判断题
:A finite
verb, informally called the main verb of a
sentence, expresses existence, action or
occurrence which is limited by person,
number, tense and mood.
一个限
定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动或
事
件。
6.
句子的分类
simple sentence
Types of sentences
coordinate or compound
sentence
Complex
sentence
简单句
---It consists of a
single clause which contains a subject and a
predicate and stands alone as its
own
sentence.
并列句合成句
-It contains two
clauses joined by a linking word called
coordinating conjunction, such
as
“but”, ”and”. ect.
复合句
—
It contains
two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated
into the other.
复合句的特点：
⑴
An
embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in
its matrix clause
⑵
Most embedded clauses
require an introductory word called a
Subordinator, such as ”that”
⑶
An embedded clause may not
function as a grammatically well-formed sentence
if it stands
independently as a simple
sentence unless its form changes.
子句是一个语法单位，大部分子句
要带一个被称为从属连词的引导词，如果子句作为秒年第
秒年句单独存在，它可能不是一
个合乎规范的句子，除非改变他的形式。
a sentence is uttered or written down,
the words of the sentence are produced one after
another
in a sequence.
hierarchical nature of sentence
structure
句子结构层次特点
sentences are organized
with words of the same syntactic category, such as
noun phrase NP or verb
phrase VP,
grouped together.
points at which the tree braches at
various levels are called Branching
nodes
分叉点
addition to the use of
structural tree diagrams, linguists may show the
hierarchical structure of
sentences by
using brackets and subscript labels.
11.
句法类型
Major
…
主要词类
open ,can add new words
Lexical
category
名、动、形、副词
N,V,Adj,Adv
Syntactic
Minor…
次要词类
close, words are fixed
Categories
限定、助动、介、代、连、叹
Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj,Int
Phrasal category
Apart from sentences and clauses, a
syntactic category usually refers to a word(called
a lexical
category) or a phrase(called
phrasal category)that performs a particular
grammatical function, such as
the
subject in a sentence.
12.
短语类型
Noun Phrase
NP
Phrasal
Verb Phrase
VP
Categories
Preposition
Phrase
PP
Adjective Phrase
AP
grammatical
relations of a sentence concern the way each moun
phrase in the sentence relates
to the
verb, in many cases, grammatical relations refer
virtually to ’who’ does ’what ’to ’whom’.
usually refer to the
grammatical relations as subject of and direct
object of.
ational rules
must be small in number so as not to create extra
burdens on the human
memory. also these
rules must be powerful enough to yield all the
possible sentences, and rule out the
impossible ones
组合规则一定不能太多，以
免给人的记忆带来过多的负担，用这些规则必须能组合出所有可能
的句子，而排除不可能
的句子。
an
generate an infinite number of sentences, and
sentences with infinite length, due to their
recursive properties. It captures the
ability of language to generate more constituents
to a sentence and
enables speakers to
repeat syntactic constituents within the same
sentence.
循环性体现了语言中的句子能有更多的
成分，使说话者能在同一句子中重复一些句法成分。
17.
移位类型
Syntactic
NP-
movement=t’s
involving the movement of a noun phrase.
Movement
名词短语的移位
WH-movement=It
changes a sentence from affirmative to
interrogative.
陈述变疑问句
AUX-
…=the movement of an
auxiliary verb to the sentence initial position.
助动词移位到句首的移位
18.
普遍语法的广义原则
General Principles of
Universal Grammar: Case
Condition
和
Adjacency
Condition
格条件
---a noun phrase must
have Case and Case is assigned by V or P to the
object position, or by
AUX to the
subject position.
名词词组必须有格，
宾语的格是由动词或介词决定，而主语的格由助动词决定。
相邻条件
—
a case
assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent
to each other,it explains why no
other
phrasal category can intervene between a verb and
its direct object.
格分派者和格接受
者要相邻。这解释了为什么任何别的词组类不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之
间。
sal Grammar is
believed to contain a parameter with the valves
增
and
减
set
on the
Adjacency condition. with
English-type languages, the Adjacency Parameter is
set to the
增
value,
while for French-type
language, the parameter is set
to
减
value.
三、问答题
the appropriate phrase structure rules
to draw a labeled constituent structure tree
diagram for
each of the following
sentences.
⑴
the
tower on the hill collapsed in the wind
⑵
Mary promised
John to see the doctor.
Chapter 5
Semantics
一、定义
1.
命名论
The naming
theory
The naming theory, one of the oldest
notions concerning meaning, and also a very
primitive one
was proposed by the
ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this
theory, the linguistic forms or
symbols, in other words,the words used
in a language are taken to be labels of the
objects they stand
for, so words are
just names or labels for things.
2.
意念论
The
conceptualist view
It holds that there is no
direct link between a linguistic form and what it
refers to; rather ,in the
interpretation of meaning they are
linked through the mediation of concepts in the
mind.
3.
语境论
Conceptualism
It’s based on the
presumption that one can derive meaning from or
reduce meaning to observable
contexts.
her are two kinds of context: the situational and
the linguistic context.
4.<
/p>
行为主义论
Behaviorism
It refers
to the attempted to define the meaning
of a language form as the” situation in which the
speaker utters it and the response it
calls forth in the hearer”. this theory somewhat
close to
conceptualism emphasizes on
the psychological response.
5.
意义
Sense
I
t’s concerned with the
inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It’s the
collection of all the features
of the
linguistic form, it’s abstract and
de
-contextualized.
6.
所指意义
Reference
It
means what a linguistic form refers to in the
real, physical world, it deals with the
relationship
between the linguistic
element and the non-linguistic world of
experience.
7.
同义词
Synonymy
It
refers to the sameness or close similarity of
meaning or we can say that words are close in
meaning are called synonyms.
8.
多义词
Polysemy
It
refers to different words may have the same or
similar meaning, the same one word may have
more than one meaning.
9.
同音
(
形
)
异义
Homonymy
It
refers to the phenomenon that words have different
meanings have the same form, i.e, different
words are identical in sound or
spelling, or in both.
10.
同音异义
Homophones
It
refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g.
rain/reign.
11.
同形异义
Homographs
It
refers to two words are identical in form .e.g.
tear v./tear n.
12.
上下义关系
Hyponymy
It
refers to the sense relation between a more
general, more inclusive word and a more specific
word. the word which is more general in
meaning is called superordinate, and the more
specific words
are called its hyponyms.
13.
反义词
Antonymy
It’s the term used for
opposit
eness of meaning on different
dimension.
14.
成分
分析法
Componential
Analysis----
分析词汇抽象意义
It’s a way proposed by the structural
semanticists to analyze word meaning.
this approach
is based upon the belief that meaning of a word
can be dissected into meaning
components, called semantic features.
15.
述谓结构分析
Predication Analysis
由
British Linguist
提出
It’s a new approach for
sentential meaning analysis.
Predication is
usually considered an important common category
shared by propositions, questions,
commands ect.
通过对论元
argument
和谓语
predicate
的分析，
达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。
16.
先设前提
Presupposition
It’s a semantic
relationship or logical connection. A presupposes
B.
17.
蕴涵
Entailment
Entailment can be illustrated by the
following tow sentences in which sentence A
entails sentence
B.
A:
Mark married a blonde heiress.
B:
Mark married a blonde.
二、知识点
views of meaning study:
The naming
Theory-----
希腊
Scholar Plato
The
conceptualism-----
观点代表人是
John
Firth,
但
Bloomfield
阐述更有说服力
The
Conceptualist view----Ogden
和
Richards
用
classic semantic
triangle of
significance
The
Behaviorism-----
英国
Bloomfield
提出，使用了
Jack
和
Jill
故事阐明
The naming
theory
的局限性
:
⑴
It’s only applicable to
Nouns only.
⑵
Within the category of
nouns, the
re are nouns which denote
things that don’t exist in the real world.
sense
l meaning
reference
3.
主要的意义关系
Synonymy Antonymy;
Hyponymy; Polysemy; homonymy
4.
(1)Dialectal
synonyms
—
synonyms used in
different regional dialects
Synonyms
(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms
differing in style
分类
(3)Synonyms that different
in their emotive or evaluative meaning
(4)Semantically different synonyms
例子：
(1)British English Lift
Luggage
Lorry
Petrol
Flat
windscreen
torch
American English Elevator Baggage Truck
Gasoline
Apartment
windshield
flashlight
(2)kick the bucket=pop off=die=pass
away=decease
having the
same meaning may differ in style, or degree of
formality.
6. some synonyms
differ in their collocation.
例子
: Accuse….of
charge…. with
rebuke….for
sour milk
Rotten tomatoes
addled eggs
rancid bacon or butter
7. a polysemic word, i.e, a word with
several meaning, is the result of the evolution of
the primary
meaning of the word.
complete homonyms are often brought into being by
coincidence.
ing naming
theory words are just names or labels for things.
utterance occurs in a
particular spatiotemporal situation, the main
components of which
include, apart from
the place and time of the utterance ,the speaker
and the hearer, the action they are
performing at the time, the various
objects and event existed in the situation.
contextulist view was
further strengthened by Bloomfield, who drew on
behaviourist
psychology when trying to
define the meaning of linguistic forms.
11
Homophones
—
when
two words are identical in sound
Rain/reign; night/knight;
piece/peace; leak/leek
Homonymy
Homographs
—
when two words
are identical in spelling
分类
Bow
v. /bow n. tear v./ tear n
lead v./lead n.
Complete
homonyms
—
when two words are
identical in both spelling
and sound.
例子
Fast
adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.
12.
(1)Gradable
antonyms
分级反义词
(a matter of
degree)
例子
Old
—
middle-
aged
—
young;
hot-warm-cold
Antonym (2) Complementary
antonyms
互补反义词
a matter of
degree between
分类
two
extremes
例子
Alive
—
dead;
male
—
female;
(3) Relational opposites
关系反义词
(
中间可以加成分，如上、中、下
)
father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-
patient; buy-sell; above-below
13.
句子间的意义关系
sense
relation between sentences
X is synonymous with Y
.
X entails Y.
X presupposes Y.
X is a contradiction.
X is semantically anomalous.
14. Analysis of
meaning
意义的分析
(1)Componential
analysis
—
a way to analyze
lexical meaning
对词汇成分的分析
(2) Predication
analysis
—
a way to analyze
sentence meaning
对句子意义的分析
(1)is a way proposed by the structural
semanticists to analyze word meaning.
The
approach is based upon the belief that the meaning
of a word can be dissected into meaning
components, called Semantic features.
一个单词的意义可以分析为称作语义特征的意义。
This is parallel to the way a phoneme
is analyzed into smaller components called
distinctive
features.
这一方
法和把一个音位分析成更小的叫作区别性特征的方法类似。
Plus and minimums signs are used to
indicate whether a certain semantic feature is
present or
absent, these feature
symbols are usually written in capitalized
letters. One advantage of componential
analysis is that by specifying the
semantic features of certain words, it will be
possible to show how
these words are
related in meaning.
加减号用来表示
某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在或缺省，这些特征用大写字母来写。
meaning of a sentence is
not the sum total of the meanings of all its
components.
Two aspects of Sentence
meaning: grammatical and semantic meaning.
ional restrictions---
Whether a sentence is semantically
meaningful is governed by rules.
semantic analysis of a sentence, the
basic unit is called predication------
Predication is the abstraction of the
meaning of a sentence. it applies to all forms of
a sentence,
including statements,
imperative and interrogative.
Predication consists of Arguments and
Predicates.
述谓是句子基本单位，是对句子的抽象化，适用于包括陈述句
、祈使句和疑问句。述谓由一
个或数个论元和一个谓词组成。
An argument is a logical participant in
a predication, largely identical with the nominal
elements in
a sentence, a predicate is
something said about an argument or it states the
logical relation linking the
arguments
in a sentence.
论元是一个的逻辑的一个参与者，谓词是关于论元的陈述，或说明一个句子的论元间的逻
辑
关系。
ing to the number of arguments
contained in a predication, we classify the
predications into
two-place
predication(has two arguments),one-place
predication (has one argument),and no-place
predication(has no argument).
19.
判断题：
although
predicate and argument are the same kind of unit
in terms of their componential
make-up,
they have different roles in the whole
predication. the predicate can be regarded as the
main
element, for it includes tense,
modality, ect. it may also said to govern the
arguments for it determines
the number
of nature of the arguments.
analysis of meaning is a highly
abstract and complicated matter.
三、问答题
are sense and reference related?
Sense refers to the inherent meaning of
a linguistic form, which is the collection of all
the features
of the linguistic form,
it’s abstract and de
-contextualized.
Reference is what a linguistic form
refers to in the real, physical world, it is a
matter of relationship
between the form
and reality.
what way is
componential analysis similar to the analysis of
phonemes into distinctive features?
成分分析
和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？
In the light of
componential analysis, the meaning of a word
consists of a number of distinctive
meaning features, the analysis breaks
down the meaning of the word into these features;
it is these
different features that
distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is
considered as a collection of
distinctive sound features, a phoneme
can be broken down into these distinctive sound
features and its
these sound features
that distinguish different sounds.
’s grammaticality? what might take a
grammatically meaningful
sentence
semantically
meaningless?
<
/p>
什么是语法性？一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的
?
Grammaticality---the
grammatical well-formedness of a sentence.
A sentence may be well-
formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the
grammatical rules of the
language, but
it is not necessarily semantically well-formed,
i.e. it may not make sense at all
Chapter 6
pragmatics
一
、定义
1.
语境
Context
The
notion of context is essential to the pragmatic
study of language, it’s generally considered as
constituted by the knowledge shared by
the speaker and the hearer.
2.
言语行为理论
Speech
act theory
It’s an
important theory in the pragmatic study of
language. it’s a philosophical explanation of the
nature of linguistic communication. it
aims to answer the question ”what do we do when
using
la
nguage?”
The concept of causatives
performatives, the locutionary act, the
illocutionary act, the perlocutionary
act and the5categories of illocutionary
act suggested and formulated by constitute the
speech act theory.
3.
叙述句
Constatives
Constatives are
statements that either state or describe, and are
thus verifiable and it bearing the
truth-value.;
4.
行为句
Performatives
Performatives are sentences that did
not state a fact or describe a state, and are not
verifiable.
5.
言内行为
Locutionary
Act
A
locutionary act is the act of uttering
words, phrases ,clauses. it’s the act of conveying
literal meaning
by means of syntax,
lexicon and phonology.
6.
言外行为
Illcotionary Act
An illocutionary act is the
act of expressing the speaker’s intention it’s the
ac
t performed
in
saying
something.
7.
言后行为
Perlocutionary
Act
Perlocuationary Act is the act
performed by or resulting from saying something.
it’s the consequence
of ,or the change
brought about by the utterance.
8.
句子意义
Sentence
meaning
It refers to a
sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning
of a sentence is often studied as the
abstract intrinsic property of the
sentence itself in terms of predication.
9.
话语意义
Utterance
meaning
It refers to a
sentence as what people actually utter in the
course of communication, it becomes and
utterance and it should be considered
in the situation in which it is actually uttered.
10.
合作原则
Cooperative Principle
It’s proposed and formulated by , a
pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the
participants must
first of all be
willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be
possible for them to carry on the talk.
11.
会话含义
Conversational implicatures
According to , it refers to the extra
meaning not contained in th utterance,
understandable to the
listener
o
nly when he shares the speaker’s
knowledge or knows why and how he violates
intentionally
one of the four maxims of
the CP.
话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一
准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。
二、知识点
1.
语用学的几个重要的理论
⑴言语行为理论
Speech
act theory
由英国哲学家
John Austi
n
在
20
世纪
50
年代末提出
< br>在此理论基础上
John
区分了定义了叙述句
Constatives
和行为句
perform
atives
在区分叙述句和行为句之后，他又定义了言内
行为、言外行为和言后行为
例子：
you have left the door
wide open.
Locutionary
act:: expressed what each word of this sentence
literally mean.
Illutionary
act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking
someone to close the door.
Perlocutionary act: someone heard the
sentence, and close the door, then this act is
successfully
performed.
※在这三种行为中，语言学家对言外行为最感兴趣
cos this kind of speech act
is identical with the speaker’s intention, and in
their study of language
communication, linguists are most
interested in how a speaker expresses his
intention and also how
his intention is
recognized by the hearer.
⑵会话原则
CP
逻辑哲学家
Paul
Grice
提出
;
2.
合作原则的准则
4Maxim of Cooperative
Principle
数量
the maxim of Q
uantity-----
你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求
Make your contribution as informative
as required;
Do not make your contribution more
informative than is required
质量
the maxim of Quality
-----
不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话
Do not say what you believe
to false.
Do not say for
which you lack adequate evidence
关系
the maxim of
relation-----
使你的话与话题相关
be
relevant
方式
the maxim of
manner-----
避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序
Avoid obscurity of expression and
ambiguity;
Be brief/be orderly.
3.
六七十年代时，美国哲学语言学
家
John Searle
对言外行为分成了
< br>5
类
阐述性
Representatives---
to
commit the speaker to something’s being the
Case ,to the truth of what has been
said.
例词
:stating,
believing, swearing,
hypothesizing
最有代表性
,
指令性
Directives---are attempts
by the speaker to get the hearer to do
something.
例词
:inviting,
suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning
,threatening,
ordering
是特有实例
承诺性
Commissives---when
speaking the speaker puts himself under
obligation.
例词
:promising, undertaking,
vowing
最典型
表达类
Expressives---the speaker
is expressing his feelings or attitude towards
an existing state of affairs.
例词
:apologizing ,thanking,
congratulating
宣告类
Declarations---the
successful performance of an act of this type
brings
about the correspondence
between what is said and reality.
例句
I now declare the meeting
open/I appoint you chairman of the committee/I
fire you.
这五类
differ in their strength
or force.
ics
和<
/p>
Pragmatics
的区分
Pragmatics studies how
meaning is conveyed in the process of
communication.
The basic
difference between them is that pragmatics
considers meaning in context, traditional
semantics studies meaning in isolation
from the context of use.
5.
语境中听者与说话者
shared
knowledge is of two types:
The knowledge of the language they use,
the knowledge about the world, including the
general
knowledge about the world and
the specific knowledge about the situation in
which linguistic
communication is
taking place.
ce
meaning
与
Utterance
meaning
的区别
Sentence
meaning---abstract, decontextualized.
Utterance
meaning---
concrete, contextualized it’s
based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of
the abstract meaning of a sentence in a
real situation of communication, or simply in a
context.
区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学
，关键在于是否考虑语境。
most utterances take the form of sentences ,i.e.
most utterances are complete sentences
In terms of syntax, some utterances are
not, and some can’t even be restored to complete
sentences
Chapter 7
Historical
linguistics
一、定义
1.
历时语言学
Diachronic
linguistics
A term used in
stead of historical linguistics to the study of
language change at various points in time
at various historical stage.
2.
元音大交替
Great
V
owel Shift
A
series of systematic sound change
in the history of English that involved
seven long vowels and
consequently led
to one of the major discrepancies between English
pronunciation and its spelling
system.
3.
词尾脱落
Apocope
The deletion of a word-
final vowel segment.
4.
插入音
Epenthesis
The insertion of a
consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word.
5.
首字母缩略词
Acronym
A word created by combining
the initials of a number of words.
6.
混合法
Blending
A process
of forming a new word by combining
parts of two other words.
7.
缩写词
Abbreviation
A shortened
form of a word or phrase which
represents the complete form.
8.
略写词
Clipping
A kind of
abbreviation of otherwise longer words
or phrases.
9.
逆向构词法
Back-
formation
A process by
which new words are formed by taking away he
suffix of an existing word.
10.
语义扩大化
Semantic
broadening
The process in
which the meaning of a word becomes more general
or inclusive than its historical
earlier
denotation.
缩小
less general or
inclusive
11.
原始语
Protolanguage
The original form of a language family
which has ceased to exist.
12.
语系
Family
language
A group of
historically related languages that have developed
from a comon ancestral language.
13.
同源词
Cognate
A word in one language
which is similar in form and meaning to a word in
another language because
both languages
have descended from a common source.
14.
语音同化
Sound
assimilation
The
physiological effect of one sound on another.
15.
内部借用
Internal
borrowing
The application
of a rule from one part of the grammar to another
part of the grammar by analogy to
its
earlier operation.
16.
派生法
Derivation
It refers to the process by
which new words are formed by the addition of
affixes to the roots, stems,
or words.
17.
语义转换
Semantic
shift
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