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Definition
Chapter1
1.
Stylistics
is an area of
study which straddles two disciplines: literary
criticism and
linguistics. Besides, it
is directly related to literary interpretation,
and make use of
linguistic facts and
theory.
Chapter2
2.
Style
as deviance
refers to the
distinctiveness of a literary text resides in its
departure
from the characteristics of
what is communicatively normal.
e.g.
p13The phrase
“
a grief
ago
”
from a poem of that
name by Dylan Thomas.
It violates two rules of English: a)
the indefinite article
a
clashes syntactically with
the
uncountable
noun
grief
;
b)
the
post
modifying
adverb
ago
clashes
semantically
with
the
head
word
grief.
The
highly
deviant
nature
of
the
phrase
attracts
much
attention from the reader to itself,
and thus makes it possible for the poet to express
what cannot be expressed through the
normal use of language.
（汪洁）
3. By
style as choice
is meant
that style results from a tendency of a speaker or
writer to
consistently choose certain
structures over others available in the language.
e.g.
In writing
The Eve of St.
Agnes
, Keats first produced the line,
“As though a rose should
close and be a
bud again”. But when he re
-read the
line, he substituted the word
shut
for
close
:”
As though a rose should shut and be a
bud
again”
4. The view of
style as
foregrounding
is a further view of
style which appears to be a
compromise
between view of style as deviance and view of
style as choice. The term
foregrounding
is a concept of pictorial arts, referring to that
part of the composition that
appears to
be closest to the view.
e.g. P19
When he laughed,
respectable senators burst with laughter,
And when he cried the little children
died in the streets.
(
W.H. Auden, Epitaph on a
Tyrant
)
Auden could have chosen a different
structure for each line, yet he limited himself
to the same option. The parallel
structure here draws the attention of the reader
and
makes
him
see
the
sematic
connection
between
the
two
lines.
This
is
a
type
of
foregroun
ding.
（汪洁）
Chapter 3
5.
Grammetrics
: the ways in
which grammatical units are fitted into metrical
units
such as lines and stanzas.
e.g.P35
This Is Just to Say
I have eaten
the
plums
that were in
the ice-
box
and which
you were probably
saving
for breakfast
Forgive me
they were
delicious
so sweet
and so cold
It creates a pulling-forward effect. In
one line, although the verb
eat
can either take
an object or not, the absence of
punctuation at the end of the line makes us expect
one.
Thus we are driven forward to the
second line where our expectation is
satisfied.(
章嫣
羚
)
6.
Affixation
: is the addition
of a prefix or suffix to an item which already
exists in
the language.
e.g.
P46
And I Tiresias have foresuffered
all.
(
)
The
nonce
word
foresuffered
is
coined
by
adding
the
prefix
?
fore-
?
to
the
item
?
suffer
?
.
The
prefix
?
fore-
?
conveys
the
meaning
?
beforeha
nd
?
and
is
normally
reserved for joining with
such items
as
?
see
?
,
?
tell
?
and
?
warn
?
. The novel
use here,
according to Leech, encapsulates a
newly formulated idea: it is possible to
anticipate
mystically the suffering of
the future, just as it is possible to
?
foresee
?
and
?
foretell
?
or
to have
?
forek
nowledge
?
of the future
events.(
章嫣羚
)
7. Graphology
: the encoding
of meaning in visual symbols.
e.g.P30
Graphological deviation can occur in
any sub-area of graphology, such as
the shape of
the text, the
type of print, grammetrics, punctuation, in-
dentation, etc.
[Thematic-
fronting]
8.
Marked
theme:
The initial unit of a clause may
be called its theme. The rest of
clause
elements might be put in the thematic position in
order to achieve certain literary
effect. The theme thus produced is
unusual and is therefore called a “marked “
theme.
E,g. P40
My opinion of the coal trade on that
river is, that it may require talent, but it
certainly
requires capital.
Talent
Mr. Micawber has,
capital
Mr. Micawber has
not.
(D
ickens,
David Copper field
).
In the second
sentence, two objects----talent and capital were
placed in the front of
each
clause.
The
function
of
the
unusual
clause
theme
seems
to
be
three-fold:
a)
it
neatly knits the
paragraph together and is thus a powerful device
of textual cohesion,
b) it serves to
form a contract in meaning between the two
parallel clauses, c) it gives
much
emphasis to the two words shifted to the initial
position.
（屈静华）
9.
compounding:
compounding is the combination of two or more
items to make a
single compound one. N
E,g.P47
While I, joy-jumping, empty-eyed sang
on the day my father died.( Edwin Brook)
In
this
sentence,
joy-jumping
is
a
compound
made
up
on
the
pattern
of
noun
+
“
ing
”
participle. This word coined from the idiom
“
jump for
joy
”
which means
“
jump
because of
joy
”
. The day when
“
my
”
father died cannot be a happy day. Therefore, the
extension of the compound rule here on
an idiom makes the situation describes in the
poem much more ironical.
The
word
empty-eyed
is
also
a
compound.
It
means
“
on the day my father
died
”
“
there are no tears in
?
my
?
eyes
”
. Here, the ironical
effect is further reinforced and
developed.
（屈静华）
10. Aphesis
: the
omission of an initial part of a word.
E,g.
Thou on whose stream,
?mid the steep sky?s commotion,
Loose clouds like earth?s decaying
leaves are shed, (
P
.B.
Shelley, Ode to the West Wind
)
The complete form of
mid
?
in the line
is
?
amid
?
< br>.
（夏莹）
11. Apocope
: the omission of
a final part of a word.
E,g.
Till a? the seas gang dry, my
dear,
And the rocks
melt wi? the sun
I
will love thee still, my dear,
While the sands o? life shall
run.
(
Robert Burns, A Red, Red
Rose
)
Here ,Burns has used
a
?
for
?
all
?
,
wi
’
for
?
with
?
and
o
’
for
?
of
?
.
（夏莹）
12.
Conversion
: which is often
described as ?zero affixation?, is the adaptation
of
an item to a new grammatical
function without changing its form.
E,g.
“I?ll Golden Bull you,
you rascal!” roared the Majesty of Prussia.
(
Macaulay
)
The noun phrase Golden Bull
is turned to a verb to convey the meaning, to
fight
(someone) like a
Golden Bull. Since Golden Bull was used as a
proper noun in the
preceding
sentence,
the
conversation
of
it
into
a
verb
makes
the
passage
highly
cohesive. It also vividly manifests the
boorishness of the Majesty of
Prussia.
（叶淑萍）
13.
Syncope:
the omission of a medial part
of a word.
E,g.
A voice so
thrilling ne?er was heard
In
spring-time from the cuckoo-bird,
Breaking the silence of the seas
Among the farthest Hebridges.
(
Wordsworth, The Solitary
Reaper
)
The original form of
ne
?
er in the first line is <
/p>
“
never
”
. It
?
s a conventional
licenses of
verse composition. It
changes the pronunciation of the original words so
that the poet
may
better
and
more
easily
arrange
sound
patterns
to
achieve
their
intended
communicative
effects.
（叶淑萍）
Chapter 4
14.
Oxymoron
: It is the yoking
together of two expression which are incompatible,
so that in combination they have no
conceivable literal reference to reality.
矛盾修辞
False true
/die merrily /a living death--------create the
communicative effect
15.
Paradox
: It is a
statement which is absurd because it is self-
evidently false.
似非而是
Ignorance is
strength. Express a certain truth or message
through apparent falsehood.
16.
Metonymy
: It
is the substitution of a word referring to an
attribute of the thing
that is
meant,rather than the substitution of a part for
the whole,or the whole for a part.
转喻
e.g. P65
The glories of our blood and state,
Are shadows,not substantial things;
There is no armour against fate;
Death lays his icy hand on kings;
Sceptre and Crown
Must
tumble down
And in the dust be equal
made
With the poor crooked Scythe and
Spade.
(Shirley,
The Glories
of our Blood
)
Sceptre and Crown are things that kings
and queens carry and wear to present their
power and authority,
and are
therefore metonyms
for kings and
queens.
Scythe
and
spade are things used by peasants or
farm workers, and are therefore metonyms for
peasants.
（冯丹）
17.
Synecdoche
:
a)
It
is
a
type
of
transference
of
meaning
which
involves
the
substitution
of
a
part
for
the
whole.
b)
It
can
also
be
interpreted
more
broadly
to
include substitution of the whole for a
part.
提喻
He
can
?
t ride a wheel. A wheel
substitutes the bicycle.
18.
Metaphor
: It is the
figurative meaning is derived from the literal
meaning or it
is, as it were, the
literal meaning.
隐喻
e.g. P69
The frog came on the
cat
?
s feet.
She
is really a duck, she thought.
(Galsworthy,
The Forsyte
Saga
)
She is a human referent and treated
either as a duck.
（陈沈慧）
19.
Overstatement
:
It
is termed hyperbole in traditional rhetoric.
It
distorts the
truth
by
great
exaggeration.
It
is
usually
used
to
emphasize
strong
feeling
and
to
create a
sentimental , satiric or comic overstatement is
often metaphorical.
夸张，夸张手法
e.g. P71
For she was beautiful-her beauty made
The bright world dim,and everything
beside
Seemed like the fleeting image
of a shade.
(Shelley)
The overstatement
her beauty made the bright
world
dim expresses the
speaker
?
s
great
admiration for the female figure. Actually, what
the poet intends to say, put in
plain
terms, is that she was extraordinarily beautiful.
（陈沈慧）
20. Homophony:
The words that have the same
pronunciation but differ in form and
meaning.
同音异义词
e.g. P77
When I am dead, I hope it may be said
?His sins were scarlet,but
his books are read.?
(Belloc, On his Books)
When we have heard these lines we would
have two simultaneous interpretations of
the last lexical item: the past
participle of the verb 'read 'which relates to his
books
and the adjective 'red' relating
to its hyponym scarlet in the first half of the
same line.
21.
Polysemy
:
the
ambiguity
of
an individual
word or phrase
that can be used
(in
different contexts) to express two or
more different meanings
一词多义
e.g. P79
Franklin:Hancock?s right. This is our
passport to the gallows. But there is no backing
out now. If we don?t hang together, we
shall assuredly hang separately.
(Peter Stone and Sherman
Edwards,
1776
)
The playwrights here deliberately
exploit the use of hang to mean both
?
put to death
with a rope
around the neck
?
(as in
punishment for a crime) and
?
remain
united
?
(an
idiom
with the word together). In this way, they have
succeeded in making Franklin a
witty,
humorous and highly literary character, like
Franklin was in person.
22.
Understatement
:
It is the opposite of overstatement in that it
misrepresents
the truth by deliberately
understanding it as opposed to exaggerating it. In
traditional
rhetoric,
scholars
make
a
distinction
between
two
types
of
understatement,
namely
litotes
[a negative
construction]
and meiosis.
降格陈述
e.g. P73
The face wasn?t a bad one; It had what
they called charm.(Galsworthy)
The face wasn
?
t a
bad one in this context is a non-committal way of
saying; the face
was a very good (or
charming) one.
Chapter 5
Define the following terms.
Alliteration
consonance
rhyme
Onomatopoeia
assonance
iamb
anapaest
pentameter
dactyl
dimeter
tetrameter
trochee
23.
Alliteration
is
the
repetition
of
the
initial
consonant
cluster
in
stressed
syllables.
Example:
?last but not
the least ? ?now or never?
The best laid schemes o? mice and
men
Gang aft a-gley
(Robert Burns ,To a Mouse)
Alliteration
is
usually
used
to
form
a
connection
of
similarity
or
a
connection
of
contrast.
The
alliteration
in
To
a
Mouse
links
mice
and
men
seems
to
form
a
connection
of
both
similarity
and
contrast.
Firstly,
it
forms
a
referential
contrast
between
man,
the
supreme
head
of
animal
creation,
and
the
mouse,
one
of
the
smallest and timidest,
and most inconsequential of creatures. Secondly,
with the help
of the conjunction
and
, it points out a
similarity between men and mouse who as this
passage suggests seem to share the
vulnerability of fate. The connection between the
two created by alliteration seems
to
emphasize the point that
creatures superficially
different are
basically the same.
24.
Consonance
is
the
repetition
of
the
final
consonant
cluster
in
stressed
syllables.
Example: P103
Nothing lovelier that that lonely call,
Bare and singular ,like a gull
And there notes or four ,then that was
all .
It drew up from the quiet like a
well ,
Waited ,sang, and vanishing ,was
still .
(Jon Swan ,In Her Song She Is
Alone )
The repeated / l / sound
effectively unites the key words of the stanza:
caii with gull
and well with still. The
/ l / sound in the quoted lines and elsewhere in
the poem has a
lingering, almost
echoing effect, which greatly reinforces the tone
of the poem.
25.
Rhyme
is defined in
Concise
Oxford Dictionary
as
“identity of sounds between
words or
verse lines extending back from the end to the
last fully accented vowel and
not
further”.
The general function of
rhymes is to get the texts more organized and to
bestow
“
music
”
to the texts. It may also be
used to achieve more significant effects.
Example: P100
For I have
known them already, known them
all
—
Have known
the evenings, mornings, afternoons,
I
have measured out my life with coffee spoons;
(T. S. Eliot,
Love Song of
J.
Alfred Prufrock)
The
rhyme of the last two lines is
very
significant.
It
links
together the two words,
afternoons
and
spoons
which
have a logical association between them. For the
words
are used in
a context
of a poem
which is
about
a society that
spends its afternoons
over
coffee and cakes.
26.
Onomatopoeia
is
ambiguous
and
can
be
interpreted
in
several
different
ways.
Firstly,
it
refers
to
the
use
of
words
formed
in
imitation
of
the
natural
sounds
associated with the object or action
involved.
The
other
interpretation
of
onomatopoeia
may
be
phrased
as
the
recurrence
of
phonemes
in
a
text
unit
that
suggests
certain
natural
sound
which
reinforce
the
meaning conveyed in that text unit.
Example :P104 ,
Crack
came
an
officer?s
club
on
his
forehead .He
blinked
his
e
yes
blindly
a
few
times ,wobbled on his legs ,threw up
his hands and staggered back .
(r,Sister Carrie)
The use of
crack in create a vivid effect to the passage. The
sound make us hear as
well as see what
are described.
p106.
I chatter over stony ways,
In little sharps and trebles,
I bubble into eddying bays,
I babble on the pebbles.
The
three onomatopoeic words chatter, bubble and
babble give a vivid description to
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