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Chapter one
Introduction
一、定义
1.
语言学
Linguistics
Linguistics is generally
defined as the
scientific study of
language.
2.
普通语言学
General
Linguistics
The study of
language as a whole is often called General
linguistics.
3.
语言
language
Language is a system of
arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication
.
语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.
识别特征
Design
Features
It refers to the defining properties of
human language that distinguish it from any animal
system of
communication.
语言识
别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness
任意性
Productivity
多产性
Duality
双重性
Displacement
移位性
Cultural
transmission
文化传递
⑴
arbitrariness
There is no logical connection between
meanings and sounds.
P.S
the
arbitrary
nature
of
language
is
a
sign
of
sophistication
and
it
makes
it
possible
for
language to have an unlimited source of
expressions
⑵
Productivity
Animals are quite limited in the
messages they are able to send.
⑶
Duality
Language is a system, which consists of
two sets of structures ,or two levels.
⑷
Displacement
Language can be used to refer to
contexts removed from the immediate situations of
the speaker.
⑸
Cultural transmission
Human capacity for language
has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and
learned the details
of
any
language
system.
this
showed
that
language
is
culturally
transmitted.
not
by
instinct.
animals are born with the capacity to
produce the set of calls peculiar to their
species.
5.
语言能力
Competence
Competence is the ideal
user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.
6.
语言运用
performance
Performance is the actual
realization of this knowledge in linguistic
communication.
语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
7.
历时语言学
Diachronic
linguistics
The study of
language change through time. a diachronic study
of language is a historical study,
which studies
the historical
development of language over a period of time.
8.
共时语言学
Synchronical linguistics
The study of a given language at a
given time.
9.
语言
langue
The abstract linguistic
system shared by all members of a speech
community.
10.
言语
parole
The realization of langue
in actual use.
11.
规定性
Prescriptive
It
aims
to
lay
down
rules
for
”correct”
behavior,
to
tell
people
what
they
should
say
and
what
should not say.
12.
描述性
Descriptive
A linguistic study
describes and analyzes the language people
actually use.
二、知识点
ge
is
not
an
isolated
phenomenon,
it’s
a
social
activity
carried
out
in
a
certain
social
environment by human beings.
语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行
的一种社会活动。
2.
几种观点和现象的提出者：
⑴瑞士语言学家
Saussure
Saussure:Langue
和
parole
的区别
⑵
U.S.A linguist
y
美国语言学家
y
in1950
针对
Saussure
< br>’
s langue&parole
提出
Competence
和
performance
word
’language’
preceded
by
the
zero
-article
,it
implies
that
linguistics
studies
not
any
particular language.
Language
一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。<
/p>
三、问答题
are major branches of
linguistics? what does each study?
Phonetics----
it’s defined as
the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s
concerned with all the
sounds that
occur in the world’s languages.
Phonology---the
study
of
sounds
systems
—
the
inventory
of
distinctive
sounds
that
occur
in
a
language and the patterns
into which they fall.
Morphology---
It’s
a
branch
of
a
grammar
which
studies
the
internal
structure
of
words
and
the
rules by which words are
formed.
Syntax-------it's a
subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence
structure of a language.
Semantics---
It’s simply
defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.
Pragmatics---the study of
meaning in context of words.
Sociolinguistics
—
the study
of language with reference to society.
Psycholinguistics---the study of
language with reference to the working of the
mind.
Applied linguistics
---the application of linguistic principles and
theories to language teaching and
learning.
2.
What makes modern linguistics different from
traditional grammar?
Modern
linguistics
is
descriptive,
its
investigations
are
based
on
authentic
and
mainly
spoken
language date.
现代语言学是描述性的，
其研究以确实可靠的、
主要以口语形式的资料为基础。
traditional grammar is
prescriptive. it is based on’ high’ written
language.
传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。
modern linguistics mainly
synchronic or diachronic? why
Modern linguistics is mainly
synchronic, focusing on the present-day language.
unless the various
states of a language
are successfully studied, it will not be possible
to describe language from a
diachronic
point of view.
现代语言学主要是共时性的
，
重点研究现代语言。
除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究
，
否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
Chapter Two
Phonology
一、定义
1.
宽式音标
Broad
transcription
The
transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols
only.
2.
窄式音标
Narrow
transcription
The
transcription of speech sound with letters symbols
and the diacritics.
3.
清音
V
oiceless
When the vocal cords are
drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without
causing vibration ,the
sounds produced
in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.
4.
浊音
V
oicing
Sounds
produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are
called voiced sounds.
5.
元音
V
owel
The sounds in the production of which
no articulators come very close together and the
air stream
passes through the vocal
tract without obstruction are called vowels.
6.
辅音
Consonants
The sounds in the
production of which there is an obstruction of the
air stream at some point of the
vocal
tract are called consonants.
7.
音位
Phoneme
The basic unit in
phonology, it’s a collection of distinctive
phonetic features.
8.
音位变体
Allophones
Different
phones
which
can
represent
a
phoneme
in
different
environments
are
called
the
allophones of that phoneme.
9.
音素
phone
A phonetic unit or segment.
it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it’s a
speech sound we use
when speaking a
language.
10.
最小对立对
Minimal
pair
When two different
forms are identical in every way except for one
sound segment which occurs
in the same
place in the strings, the two words are said to
form a minimal pair.
11.
超切分特征
Suprasegmental
The
phonemic
features
that
occur
above
the
level
of
the
segment
are
called
suprasegmental
features. the main suprasegmental
features include stress ,intonation and tone.
12.
互补分布
complementary distribution
P35
Two allophones of the same phoneme are
said to be in complementary distribution.
13.
语言的语音媒介
Phonic
medium of language
The limited range of sounds which are
meaningful in human communication and are of
interest
to linguistic studies are the
phonic medium of language.
在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。
14.
爆破音
stops
When a obstruction created
by the speech organs is total or complete, the
speech sound produced
with the
obstruction released and the air passing out again
is called a stop or a plosive.
they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]
二、知识点
tics resulting from careful
investigations show that there have been
over5,000languages in
the world, about
two thirds of which have not had written form.
2. of the two media of
language,speech is more basic than writing.
ic
组成
⑴
Articulatory phonetics
发音语音学
longest established,
mostly developed
⑵
Auditory
phonetics
听觉语音学
⑶
Acoustic
phonetics
声学语音学
latoryApparatus /Organs of Speech
Pharyngeal
cavity
–
咽腔
Oral ...
–
口腔
greatest
source of modification of air stream found here
Nasal
?–
鼻腔
tongue is the most
flexible, responsible for more varieties of
articulation than any other, the
extreme
back
of
the
tongue
can
be
raised
towards
the
uvula
and
a
speech
sound
can
be
thus
produced as is used in Arabic and
French.
ction between the
back of the tongue and the velar area results in
the pronunciation of[k]
and[g],the
narrowing
of
space
between
the
hard
palate
and
the
front
of
the
tongue
leads
to
the
sound[j];the obstruction created
between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar
ridge results in the
sounds[t]and[d].
l consonants:
[m] / [n] / [η]
8. A Phone
is a phonetic unit or segment.
h has four basic types of
intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise
tone; Rise-fall tone
三、问答题
1. How are the English
consonants classified?
By place of articulation
and By manner of articulation
2
．
How do
phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of
study?
Phonetics
—
description
of all speech sounds and their
differences.
Phonology
—
description
of
sound
systems
of
particular
languages
and
how
sounds
function
to
distinguish
meaning.
3.W
hat’s a phone? how is it
different from a phoneme? how are allophones
related to a phoneme?
Phone
—
a speech
sound ,a phonetic unit.
Phoneme---a collection of abstract
sound features, a phonological unit.
Allophones---actual realization of a
phoneme in different phonetic contexts.
is a minimal pair and a
minimal set? why is it important to identify the
minimal set in a
language?
为什
么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要
?
Minimal pair
—
two
sound combinations identical in every way except
in one sound element that
occurs in the
same position.
除了出现在同一位置的一个
语音成分不同外
,
其他部分都一样的两个语音组合
.
Minimal
set
—
a group of sound
combinations with the above feature.
一组具有上述特征的语音组合
.
By
identifying
the
minimal
pair
or
the
minimal
set
of
a
language,
a
philologist
can
identify
its
phonemes.
通过分析一种
语言的最小对立对或最小对立组
,
音位学家能辨别出它的音位<
/p>
.
n with examples
how broad transcription and narrow one
transcription differ?
Broad
transcription
—
one letter
symbol for one sound.
Narrow
transcrip
tion
—
diacritics
are
added
to
the
one-letter
symbols
to
show
the
finer
differences between sounds.
Chapter Three Morphology
一、定义
1.
词素
Morpheme
The basic unit
in the study of morphology and the smallest
meaningful unit of language.
2.
自由词素
Free
Morpheme
Free morphemes are independent units of
meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.
3.
黏着词素
Bound
morphemes
Bound morphemes are these morphemes
that canot be used by themselves, must be combined
with other morphemes to form words that
can be used independently.
4.
词根
Root
Root is the base form of a word which
cannot be further analyzed without total loss of
identity.
5.
词缀
Affix
The
collective
term
for
the
type
of
formative
that
can
be
used
only
when
added
to
another
morpheme.
6.
曲折词缀
inflectional affixes
The
manifestation of grammatical relationships through
the addition of inflectional affixes, such
as number, tense, degree and case.
7.
派生词缀
Derivational affixes
The
manifestation
of
relation
between
stems
and
affixes
through
the
addition
of
derivational
affixes.
8.
词干
Stem
A
stem is
the existing form
to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem
can be a bound
root ,a free morpheme,
or a derived form itself.
9
.
形态学规则
Morphological rules
They are rules that govern which affix
can be added to what type of stem to form a new
word.
10.
前缀
Prefix
Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem
,but usually do not change the part of speech of
the
original word, exceptions are the
prefixes ‘be
-
‘ and
‘en(m)
-
‘
11.
后缀
Suffix
Suffixes are added to the end of stems,
they modify
the meaning of the original
word and in
many cases change its part
of speech. using the morphological rules, we must
guard against
Over-generalization.
二、知识点
1. some words maybe said to contain a
root morpheme.
nd features:
⑴
orthographically, a
compound can be written as one word, two separate
words with or without a
hyphen in
between.
⑵
Syntactically, the part of
speech of a compound is determined by the last
element.
⑶
semantically, the meaning
of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from
the meanings of all
its component
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