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Chapter
1 Introduction
1.
Linguistics
is
generally
defined
as
the
scientific
study
of
language.
2.
The
scope
of
linguistics:
phonetics,
phonology,
morphology,
syntax,
semantics,
pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics.
3.
Some important
distinctions in linguistics
1)
Prescriptive vs. descriptive
If
a
linguistic
study
aims
to
describe
and
analyze
the
language
people
actually use, it is said to be
descriptive, if the linguistic study
aims
to
lay
down
rules
for
?°correct
and
standard?±
behavior
in
using
language,
i.e.
to
tell
people
what
they
should
say
and
what
they
should
not say, it is said
to be prescriptive.
2) Synchronic vs.
diachronic
A language at some point
of time in history is a synchronic study;
the
description
of
a
language
as
it
changes
through
time
is
a
diachronic
study.
3) Speech and writing
Speech
is
more
important:
a.
from
linguistic
evolution
b.
needed
to
record
speech,
can
be
spoken
but
many
languages
still
not
writing.
c.
play a greater role than writing in
everyday communication.
4). Language
and parole
Langue refers to the
abstract linguistic system shared by all the
members
of
a
speech
community.
Parole
refers
to
the
realization
of
langue
in
actual use.
5) Competence and
performance
Competence
as
the
ideal
user??s
knowledge
of
the
rules
of
his
language,
and
performance
the
actual
realization
of
this
knowledge
in
linguistic
communication.
6)
Traditional grammar and modern linguistics
Modern linguistics differs from
traditional grammar:
a.
linguistics
is
descriptive
while
traditional
grammar
is
prescriptive.
b.
Modern
linguistics
regards
the
spoken
language
as
primary,
not
the
written
c.
Modern
linguistics differs from traditional grammar also
in that
it does not force languages
into a Latin-based framework.
4.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal
symbols used for human
communication.
5.
The feature of language:
a.
language
is
a
system,
i.e.,
elements
of
language
are
combined
according to rules.
b.
Language is arbitrary.
c.
Language is symbolic.
6.
Design features:
a.
Arbitrariness:
there
is
no
logical
connection
between
meanings
and
sounds.
b.
Productivity:
it
makes
possible
the
construction
and
interpretation
of new signals by its users.
c.
Duality:
language
is
a
system,
which
consists
of
two
sets
of
structures, or two levels.
d.
Displacement: language
can be used to refer to things which are
present
or
not
present,
real
or
imagined
matters
in
the
past,
present,
or future, or in
far-away palces.
e.
Culture
transmission
Chapter two Phonology
1.
Phonetics
is
defined
as
the
study
of
the
phonic
medium
of
language;
it
is
concerned
with
all
the
sounds
that
occur
in
the
world??s
languages.
2.
Three
branches
of
phonetics:
articulatory
phonetics,
auditory
phonetics and acoustic phonetics
3.
Three important areas of
organs of speech:
Pharyngeal cavity
----the throat
The oral cavity---the
mouth
Nasal cavity----the nose
4.
The
difference
between
broad
transcription
and
narrow
transcription:
Broad
transcription
is
the
transcription
normally
used
in
dictionaries
and teaching
textbooks for general purposes.
Narrow
transcription
is
the
transcription
needed
and
used
by
the
phoneticians in their study of speech
sounds.
5.
The
classification
of
English
speech
sounds:
two
board
categories:
vowels and
consonants.
and the other is in terms
of place of articulation.
7.
Types
of
English
consonants:
stops,
fricatives,
affricates,
liquids,
nasals,
glides,
bilabial,
labiodental,
dental,
alveolar,
palatal,
velar, glottal.
8.
Classification of English vowels:
Vowels may be distinguished as front,
central and back according to
which
part of the tongue is held highest.
9.
Phonology aims to discover how speech
sounds in a language form
patterns
and
how
these
sounds
are
used
to
convey
meaning
in
linguistic
communication.
10.
A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
The speech sounds we hear
and produce
during linguistic communication are all phones.
11.
A
phoneme
is
a
phonological
unit;
it
is
a
unit
that
is
of
distinctive
value.
It
is
an
abstract
unit.
It
is
not
any
particular
sound,
but
rather
it
is
represented
or
realized
by
a
certain
phone
in
a
certain
phonetic
context.
12.
Allophones: the
different
phones
which
can represent
a
phoneme in
different
phonetic
environment
are
called
the
allophones
of
that
phoneme.
13.
Minimal
pairs:
when
two
different
forms
are
identical?¨?ê???à????in
every
way except
for one sound
segment
which occurs
in
the
same
place
in the strings, the
two
sound
combinations
are
said
to form
a minimal
pair.(till,kill)
14.
Sequential rules: there
are rules that govern the combination of
sounds in a particular language.
15.
If three consonants
should cluster together at the beginning of a
word, the combination should obey the
following three rules:
a.
The first phoneme must be /s/
b.
The second phoneme must
be /p/ or /t/ or /k/
c.
The
third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/
16.
Assimilation
rule
assimilates
one
sound
to
another
by
?°copying?±
a
feature
of
a
sequential
phoneme,
thus
making
the
two
phones
similar.
17.
Deletion
rule:
a
sound
is
to
be
deleted
although
it
is
orthographically represented.
18.
Suprasegmental
features:
the
phonemic
features
that
occur
above
the
level of the segments.
19.
Two kinds of stress??
word stress and sentence stress
Sentence
stress:
the
relative
force
given
to
the
components
of
a
sentence
20.
Tone:
pitch
variations,
which
are
caused
by
the
differing
rates
of
vibration of the vocal cords.
21.
Intonation: when pitch,
stress and sound length are tied to the
sentence
rather
than
the
word
in
isolation,
they
are
collectively
known
as intonation.
a.
falling-tone
b.
rising tone
c.
fall-rise tone
Chapter 3
Morphology
1.
Closed
class
words:
conjunctions,
prepositions,
articles
and
pronouns?¨?ú????
consist
of
relatively
few
words
and
have
been
referred
to.
2.
Morphology: the study of
the internal structure of words, and the
rules by which words are formed.
3.
Morpheme: the most basic
element of meaning.
Chapter 4 Syntax
1.
Syntax
is
a
branch
of
linguistics
that
studies
how
words
are
combined
to
form
sentences
and
the
rules
that
govern
the
formation
of
sentences.
2.
Category: a group of linguistic items
which fulfill the same or
similar
functions
in
a
particular
language
such
as
a
sentence,
a
noun
phrase or a verb.
3.
Word level categories are divided into
two kinds: major lexical
categories and
minor lexical categories.
4.
Called
phrases:
syntactic
units
that
are
built
around
a
certain
word
category.
5.
Phrases that are formed of more than
one word usually contain the
following
elements:
a.
head: the word
around which a phrase is formed
b.
specifier: the words on the left side
of the heads are said to
function.
c.
Complements: the words on
the right side of the heads.
6.
Phrase
structure
rule:
such
special
type
of
grammatical
mechanism
that regulates the arrangement of
elements that make up phrase.
7.
The XP rule:
XP??(specifier)---X(complement)
8.
Coordination
structure:
some
structures
are
formed
by
joining
two
or
more elements of the same type with the help of a
conjunction such
as and or or.
9.
The principle of
coordination rule:
a.
there
is
no
limit
on
the
number
of
coordinated
categories
that
can
appear prior to the
conjunction.
b.
A category
at any level can be coordinated.
c.
Coordinated categories must be of the
same type.
d.
The category
type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the
category type of the elements being
conjoined.
10.
Specifiers
have
both
special
semantic
and
syntactic
roles.
Semantically, they help make more
precise the meaning of the head.
Syntactically, they typically mark a
phrase boundary.
11.
Determiners
serve
as
the
specifier
of
Ns
while
qualifiers
typically
function as the specifiers of Vs and
degree words as the specifiers
of As
and sometimes Ps.
12.
Complements are themselves phrases and
provide information about
entities and
locations whose existence is implied by the
meaning of
the head.
13.
Complementizers: words which introduce
the sentence complement.
14.
The
sentence
introduced
by
the
complementizer
is
called
a
complement
clause.
15.
Thus the whole
italicized part in the above sentence is called a
complement
phrase
and
the
construction
in
which
the
complement
phrase
is embedded is called matrix clause.
16.
Modifier:
which
specify
optionally
expressible
properties
of
heads.
17.
The S
rule: S--- NP VP
18.
The XP
rule: XP---(specifier)X(complement)
Chapter 5 Semantics
1.
Semantics: is the study of meaning.
2.
The naming theory: one of
the oldest notions concerning meaning,
and also the most primitive one.
3.
The limitation of this
theory:
a.
this
theory
seems
applicable
to
nouns
only,
but
verbs,
adjectives,
and adverbs are definitely not labels
of objects
b.
within the
category of nouns, there are nouns which denote
things
that
do
not
exist
in
the
real
world
at
all,
and
also
nouns
that
do
not
refer to
physical object, but abstract notions.
4.
The
conceptualist
view:
there
is
no
direct
link
between
a
linguistic
form and what it
refers to; rather, in the interpretation of
meaning
they are linked through the
mediation of concepts in the mind.
5.
Referent: the object in the world of
experience; and thought or
reference
refers to concept.
6.
Contextualism:
meaning
should
be
studied
in
terms
of
situation,
use,
context---elements closely linked with
language behavior.
7.
Behaviorism: to define the meaning of a
language form as the ?°
situation
in
which
the
speaker
utters
it
and
the
response
it
calls
forth
in the hearer.?±
8.
Sense
is
concerned
with
the
inherent
meaning
of
the
linguistic
form.
It is the collection of all the
features of the linguistic form; it
is
abstract and de-contextualized.
9.
Reference
means
what
a
linguistic
form
refers
to
in
the
real,
physical
world;
it
deals
with
the
relationship
between
the
linguistic
element and the
non-linguistic world of experience.w
10.
Synonymy: the
sameness or close similarity of
meaning.
Words that
are
close in meaning.
11.
The
classification of synonymy:
a.
dialectal
synonyms---
synonyms
used
in
different
regional
dialects
b.
stylistic synonyms----synonyms
differing in style
c.
synonyms that differ in their emotive
or evaluative meaning
d.
collocational synonyms
e.
semantically different
synonyms?¨amaze,astound??
12.
Polysemy?¨?à?????ó??: the same one word
may have more than one
meaning.
13.
Homonymy(?????ì?é???????ì??):
the
phenomenon
that
words
having
different
meanings
have
the
same
form,
i.e.,
different
words
are
identical in sound or
spelling, or in both.
14.
Homophones(?????ì?é): two words are
identical in sound
15.
Homographs?¨?????ì??): two words are
identical in spelling
16.
Complete
hemonyms:
two
words
are
identical
in
both
sound
and
spelling.
17.
Hyponymy?¨??????????: the sense
relation between a more general,
more
inclusive word and a more specific word.
18.
Superordinate?¨????????:
the
word
which
is
more
general
in
meaning.
19.
Hyponyms?¨????????: the more specific
words.
20.
Hyponyms of the
same superorinate are co-hyponyms to each other.
21.
Antonymy: words that are
opposite in meaning.
22.
The
classification of antonymy:
a.
gradable antonyms: some antonyms are
gradable because there are
often
intermediate forms between the two members of a
pair. So it is
a matter of degree.
b.
Complementary
antonyms:
a
pair
of
complementary
antonyms
is
characterized
by
the
feature
that
the
denial
of
one
member
of
the
pair
implies
the assertion of the other.
c.
Relational
opposites:
pairs of
words that
exhibit the reversal of
a
relational opposites.
23.
Sense relations between sentences:
a.
X is
synonymous
with
Y.
in
terms
of
truth
condition,
if
X
is
true,
Y is
true, and if X is false, Y is false.
b.
X
is
inconsistent
with
Y.
if
X
is
true,
Y
is
false,
and
if
X
is
false,
Y is
true.
c.
X
entails
Y.
(Y
is
an
entailment
of
X)
if
X
entails
Y,
then
the
meaning
of X is included in Y.
d.
X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite
of X) if X is true, Y must
be true, if
X is false, Y is still ture
e.
X is a contradiction. When X is a
contradiction, it is invariably
false.
f.
X is semantically
anomalous,
when
X
is
semantically anomalous,
it
is absurd in the sense that it
presupposes a contradiction.
24.
Componential
analysis:
a
way
proposed
by
the
structural
semanticists to analyze word meaning.
25.
Semantic features: the
approach is based upon the belief that the
meaning of a word can be dissected into
meaning components.
26.
The
advantage of componential analysis: specifying the
semantic
features
of
certain
words,
it
will
be
possible
to
show
how
these
words
are
related in meaning.
27.
Componential
analysis
provides
an
insight
into
the
meaning
of
words
and a way to study the relationships
between words that are related
in
meaning.
28.
Before
looking
at
the
analysis
of
sentence
meaning,
two
points
about
sentence meaning need be clarified.
a.
the
meaning
of
a
sentence
is
not
the
sum
total
the
meanings
of
all
its
components,
that
is
,
the
meaning
of
a
sentence
is
not
to
be
worked
out by adding up all
the meanings of its constituent words.
b.
The
second
thing
about
sentence
meaning
is
that
there
are
two
aspects
to sentence meaning: grammatical
meaning and semantic meaning.
29.
Selectional
restrictions:
whether
a
sentence
is
semantically
meaningful is
governed by rules.
30.
All
forms of sentence: statements, imperative and
interrogative
forms.
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