-
Psychology: the scientific
study of behavior and mental processes.
History of
psychology:1
、
from philosophy
: empiricism(
经验主义
) and posit
ivism
（实证主义）
2
、
from biology :
evolution(
进化论
) and physiolog
y(
生理学
)3
、
from physics(
物理学
)
When
did
psychology
start?
:
in
1879,
Wilhelm
Wundt
created
the
first
psychology
lab
in
Lerpzig.1890
《
Principles of
psychology
》
by
William James.
The
similarity and differences between
structuralism(
构造主义
) and
functionalism
（机能主义）
:
1
、
The
similarity
:
they
all
think
the
object
of
psychological
investigation(
研究
)
should
be
the
conscious mind.
2
、
the differences
: 1-Wundt or James 2-Wundt think the object of
psychology investigation should
be
studied
by
introspection.
3-James
argued
that
the
workings
of
the
mind
are
functional,
to
survive and adapt, so we should
investigate what behavior and thought are for.
The Psychoanalytic approach
to psychology(
精神分析
)
：
Freud
hysteria(
癔症
) the
manifestation of physical
symptoms
宣泄法
Charcot(
沙可
) Jung
荣格
Adler
阿德勒
Klein
克莱因
Erickson
埃里克森
Oedipus complex
俄狄浦斯情结
Method of investigation: case study:
Free association
自由联想
Dream
analysis
梦的解析
Areas of explanation : fixation /
defense mechanisms
防御机制
The behaviorist
approach to psychology
行为主义
<
/p>
哲学基础：
empiricism
经验主
义
Pavlov
巴甫洛夫
classical
conditioning
经典条件反射
Thorndike
桑代克
Skinner
斯金纳
operant
conditioning
操作性条件反射
Watson
华生
《
psychology as the
behaviorist views
it
》
《行为主义者眼中的心理学》
Bandura
班杜拉
social learning theory
社会学习理论
Practical
applications(
实际应用
) : token
economies
代币制
systematic
desensitization
系统脱敏
The humanistic approach to
psychology
人本主义
:
Influenced by Gestalt
psychology
’
s idea
受格式塔心理学影响
Maslow
马斯洛
self-
actualize
自我实现
Rogers
罗杰斯
client-centered
therapy
当事人中心疗
法
to
self-actualization
建立自信
Methods of investigation :
phenomenological
approach
现象学方法
The cognitive approach of
psychology
认知心理学：
Tolman
托尔曼
Piaget
皮亚杰
paradigm
范式
Cognitive
psychology
compares
the
human
mind
to
a
computer
study
perception,
attention,
memory, thinking,
language, problem solving.
Practical
applications :Ellis
’
s
rational emotive therapy
理情疗法
Four debates
四大争论：
1
、
Reductionism
还原论
VS
Holism & Interactionism
整体论
&<
/p>
相互作
用论
2
、
nature
自然论
VS nurture
教育论<
/p>
3
、
freewill
自由意志
Vs
determinism
决定论
4
、
Nomothetic
approach
一般原理
Vs
Idiographic approach
特殊规则
Pseudo
science
伪科学
：
Pretending
to
be
a
science
but
achieving
noting
like
the
results
and
success of the natural
sciences.
Kuhn paradigm
库恩范式
:The progression of
science has three historical stages :
1
、
pre-science
前科学期
2
、
No
rmal science
科学期
3
、
revolution
变革期
Kuhn argues that psychology is in a
stat of pre-science because there is no overall
paradigm.
Psychometric
testing
心理测量
V
alidity
效度
:Measure what they are
supposed to measure.
Reliability
信度
: Measure consistently and
fairly
Standardization
标准化
discriminatory
区分度
Are the test results properly used and
applied?:
1
、
do not assume the result are perfectly
stable
2
、
do not assume results are perfectly
predicative
3
、
do not use the result to label people
4
、
do
not use the results to compare people if the test
was not devised for the purpose
5
、
do
not
fail
to
take
into
account
other
important
factors
,or
use
the
test
results
as
the
only
source of data.
Ethical
principles for conducting research with human part
icipants(
伦理
)
：
Consent
知情同意
deception
解释
debriefing
任务报告
withdrawal from the investiga
tion
自由退
出
confident
iality
保密
protection of partic
ipants
保护被试
observational
research
观察研究
giving
advice
给予劝告
翻译：
internalexternal reliabil
ity
内部
外部信度
< br>
split half method
半分信度
test-re-test
method
Face/content
validity
正面效度
concurrent <
/p>
validity
一致性效度
const
ruct
validity
结构效度
predictive validity
预测效度
ecological validity
生态效度
Research methods
定义
:
operationalisation
操作化：
refers
to the process of making variable physically
measurable or
testable
Independent
variable
自变量
: is the variable
that is manipulated in two or more conditions to
see
what effect is has on the dependent
variable.
Dependent
variable
因变量
:is the main
measured outcome of the experiment ,hopefully due
to the
manipulation of the independent
variable
Extraneous
variable
无关变量
:
other
variables
that
could
potentially
influence
the
dependent
variable apart from the independent
variable.
Hypotheses
假设
are
precise
,testable
statements.
They
should
be
bold,
precise,
refutable(null
hypothesis
零假设
/
alternative hypothesis
抉择假设
).
They can be experimental hypotheses.
Experimental
methods
实验方法
natural /quasi
自然
/
准则实验法
Non-
experimental methods 1
非实验法
observations
观察法
：
1
、
naturalistic
自然实验法
:spontaneous
behavior
in
the
subject
’
s
own
natural
environment
.2
、
controlled
控制实验法
:beh
avior
under
conditions
contrived
by
she
researcher.3
、
part
icipant
参与实验法
Non-experimental methods 2
interviews
访谈法
structured
interviews
组织访谈
semi-
structured
interviews
半组织访谈
clinical
interview
临床访谈
unstructured
interview
非组织访谈
questionnaires
问卷法
opinion surveys
调查问卷
psychological
tests
心理测验
Non-
experimental methods 3
negative
correlation
负相关
positive correlation
正相关
cause and
effect
因果关系
sampli
ng
取
样
定
义
:
：
is
the
process
of
selecting
subjects
to
study
from
the
target <
/p>
population.(sample
样本
)
random
sampling(
随机取样
):every
member
of
a
target
population
has
an
equal
chance
of
being
selected.
Stratified
sampling(
分
层
取<
/p>
样
):involves
dividing
the
target
population
into
important
subcategories(or strata) and then
selecting members of these subcategories in the
population that
they occur in target
population.
How do
psychologists control extraneous variables and
bias in their studies?
心理学家在试验中怎
< br>样控制外扰变量和偏向。
Type of
problem/ method of control
Subjects
/individual
differences/sample
large
and
randomly
to
gain
a
representative
sample.
Allocate subject randomly.
Method/ artificiality/ use a non-
laboratory environment instead
Design/1
、
order
effects/ use independent measures design
instead.2
、
demand
characteristics/ use
independent
measures design, deception to hide research aim,
single blind method.
Procedure/
distraction
and
confusion/
standardized
instructions
should
be
given
in
a
clear
and
simple
form
and
the
subject
should
be
asked
if
they
have
questions.
Standardized
procedures
should be
employed.
How do
psychologists summarize their data numerically?
Levels
of
data:
nominal
data(
称名数据
)is
a
simple
frequency
headcount
found
in
discrete
categories is the simplest data.
Ordinal data(
顺序数据
)is
measurements that can be put in an order,
rank
or
position
,the
intervals
between
each
rank,
however,
are
unknown.
Interval
data(
等距数
据
)is measurements that is
known and equal.
Ratio
data(
等比数据
)has a true zero
point, whereas
interval data can go
into negative values, the most precise types of
data.
Cognitive
psychology
认知心理学
定
义：
perception(
感知觉
)
: the process of interpreting and organizing the
environment information
received by the
senses.
Constancy
恒常性：
shape
constancy
形状恒常性
size
constancy
大小恒常性
brightness
c
onstancy
颜色（亮度）恒常性
Wertheimer
’
s phi
Phenomenon
似动现象
: a series of
separate lights turned off and on, one by one,
in sequence will give the perception of
continuous movement.
Law
of
pragnanz:
proximity
接近律
similarity
相似律
continui
ty
连续律
closure
闭合律
figure-
ground
背景律
common
fate
共运律
Top-down theories and bottom-up
theories of perception
1
、
top-down theories
something
referred to as constructivist theories, these
theories stress the factor in the construction
of reality that go beyond the
information received from the sense.
Gregory
’
s theory and
perceptual
set theory regard perception
as a very active process, where by the
individual
’
s past knowledge,
expectations and stereotypes seek out
sensory data to complete the picture.
2
、
bottom-up theories
there
theories
emphasize
the
richness
of
the
information
entering
the
eye
and
the
may
that
perception can occur
from using all the
information
available. Gibson believe perception occurs
directly from sensation , feature
detection theories examine the
processes involved
in
assembling
perception from sensations.
Cocktail party
effect
鸡尾酒效应：
at cocktail
parties, people are capable of detecting their
name
being mentioned in other
conversations that they thought they were not
paying attenuation to.
Focused auditory
attention theories:
Broadbent
’
s
filter
theory
过滤器理
论
Treisman
’
s
attenuation
theory
衰减理论
deutsch-norman
late
selection theory
后衰减理论
1
、
Broadbent
’
s
filter theory: input stimulus>>sensory
register>channels of information>selective
filter>single
selected
channel>limited
capacity
processor>>output
response
processes.
*Broadbent
’
s
filter
model
assumes
that
attended
information
is
selected
early
in
the
system
according to it
’
s
physical characteristics.
2
、
Treisman
’
s
attenuation
theory:
input
stimulus>>selective
attenuating
fitter
>attenuated
channels
of
information/
selected
channel>
semantic
analysis>selected
channel>output
response
processes.
*Treisman
proposed
that
non-attended
information
is
diminished
or
”
attenuated
”
compared to attended information.
All attenuated channels then proceed to
a
semantic
analysis where
information
is
noticed with
an
ease
determined
by
its
threshold
of
importance or relevance .
information that has some personal importance or
current temporary
relevance will
probably be recognized even in non-attended,
poorly attenuated channels.
3
、
Input
stimulus>all
channels
of
information
proceed
to
semantic
analysis>semantic
analysis>selected
channel>out
put
response
processes.
*The
deutsch-norman
theory
argues
that
all
channels
of
information
are
analysed
for
meaning
equally
and
the
filter
is
a
late
selection one.
Types of memory
Encoding
types
of
memory:
imagery
memory
表象记
忆
procedural
memory
程序性记忆
declarative
memory
陈述性记忆
.
Duration types of
memory
记忆的持续时间类型
: sensory
memory
感觉记忆
short
term memory
短时记忆
long term
memory
长时记忆
Chunk
组块
: a group
of information that be used in short term memory.
Primacy
effect
首因效应：
subjects tend to
recall the first words of the list well.
Recency
effect
近因效应：
subjects usually
recall those items from the end of the list first,
and tend
to get more of these correct
on average than all the earlier items.
Recall
回忆
:
this
involves
the
active searching
of
our
memory with
very few
external
memory
cues.
Recognition
再认
:this
involves
a
sense
of
familiarity
with
external
material
whether
we
can
name/ identify
it or not.
Developmental Psychology
Attachment
依恋：
a
strong ,long
lasting
and
close
emotional
bond
between
two
people, which
causes
distress on separation from the attached
individual.
How does the
attachment develop?
1
、
pre-attachment
phase
前依赖期
0-3 months
2
、
indiscriminate attachment
phase
无区别依赖期
3-7months
3
、
discriminate attachment phase
区别依赖期
7-9months
4
、
multiple attachment phase
复合依赖期
9 months onward
major
consequences
of
privation
and
their
precise
likely
causes
依恋剥夺的影响
:
intellectual
retardation
智力迟缓
affectionless
psychopathy
情感淡薄
anti-social
behavior/ delinquency
反社
会行为
enuresi
s
尿床
developmental
dwarfism
发展性侏儒
schema
图式
: an
internal representation of a specific physical or
mental action.
Operations
操作化
：
higher
order
mental
structures which
enable
the
child
to
understand
more
complex rules about how
the environment works.
Assimilation
同化
:
the process whereby new objects ,situations or
ideas are understood in terms of
schemata the child already possesses
Accommodation
顺应：
the
process whereby the existing schemata have to be
modified to fit new
situations, objects
or in formations.
Piaget
’
s stages
of cognitive
development:1
、
the
sensorimotor stage2
、
the pre-
operational stage2
、
concrete
operational stage4
、
formal
operational stage
Zone of proximal
development(ZOP)
The
distance between the actual developmental level as
determined by individual problem solving
and
the
level
of
potential
development
as
determined
through
problem
solving
under
adult
guidance or in collaboration with more
capable peers.
Moral
development
道德发展
superego
超我
Oedipus
俄狄浦斯
identification
认同
conscience
自我
eg
o-ideal
本我
Moral
reasoning
道德理论：
Piaget
’
s theory:
heteronomous morality
他律道德
autonomous
morality
自律道德
Kohlberg
’
s
theory:
1
、
pre-
conventional:1-punishment
&
obedience
orientation
2-instrumental-relativist orientation
2
、
conventional:1-good boy-
nice girl orientation 4-law &order
orientation
3
、
post-conventional:5-social
contract orientation 6-universal principles
orientation
Learning theories of moral
development
Classical conditioning/
operant conditioning/ positively reinforced/
social
learning theory
Social Psychology
定义：
social power refers to
the influence a person has to change
another
’
s thoughts, feeling,
or
behavior.
Types of
power
权利分类
1
、
reward power
奖励
2
、
coercive power
惩罚
3
、
referent power
认同
4
、
legitimate
power
合法
5
、
expert power
专家