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Chapter 6 Semantics
Semantics:
it is generally
defined as the study of inherence or intrinsic
meaning, the
meaning in isolation from
the context.
The
naming
theory:
命名论
it
is
one
of
the
oldest
notions
concerning
meaning
proposed by Plato,
which holds the view that the relationship between
linguistic forms
and what they stand
for is one of naming.
Its defaults
:
firstly, the theory seems
applicable
to
nouns
only.
Secondly,
even
within
the
category
of
nouns,
there
are
nouns which denote things that do not
exist in the real world at all or things that do
not
refer
to
physical
objects,
but
abstract
notions.
Finally,
some
words
may
have
different meanings in
different contexts while the same reference may
have different
names such as
“
the morning
star
”
and
“
the evening
star
”
The
conceptualist
theory
:
意念论
C.
K
.Ogden
Richard
created
the
semantic
triangle
to
show
the
indirect
relationship
between
symbols
and
their
supposed
referents.
Symbol:
it refers to the
linguistic elements such as word or sentence.
Referent
: it
refers to the object in the world of experience.
Context
:
it
refers
to
what
comes
before
and
after
a
word,
phrase,
statement,
etc.
helping to fix the
meaning; or refers to circumstances in which an
event occurs.
Contextualism
:
情境论、语境论
John Firth
Situational
context
:
it
refers
to
the
particular
spatiotemporal
situation
in
which
an
utterance
occurs,
the
main
components
of
which
include,
apart
from
the
place
and
time of
the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the
actions they are performing at the
time, the various objects and events
exists in the situation.
The
linguistic
context:
sometimes
known
as
context,
it
includes
a
word
’
s
co-occurrence or collocation with
another word, which forms part of the
“meaning” of
a word, and,
also the part of text that precedes and follows a
particular utterance. For
example, the
meaning of the word
“
paper
”
differs in the two
collocations of
“
a piece
of
paper” and
“
a white
paper
”
。
Linguistic
context also includes the part of text that
precedes and follows a particular
utterance.
Bloomfiled defined the
meaning of a language form as the
“situation
in which the
speaker utters it and the response it
calls forth in the hearer
”
Behaviorism
:
行为主义
it
is
a
theory
of
animal
and
human
learning
that
only
focuses on objectively
observable behavior and discount mental
activities.
Sense
:
意义
it is the
inherent meaning of the linguistic form.
Reference
:
所指
it is what a linguistic
form refers to in the real physical world.
Dialectal
synonyms:
方言同义词
they
are
the
synonyms
used
in
different
regional
dialects such as
lift
in British English and
elevator
in American English
.
Stylistic synonyms:
语体同义词
they are the synonyms
differing in style , or degree
of
formality , such as
gentleman/guy.
Affective synonyms
:
情感同义词
they are the synonyms
that bear the same meaning
but express
different emotions of the user, indicating the
attitudes or bias of the user
toward
what he is talking about ,such as
like/love/admire/adore/worship.
Collocational
synonym
s:
用于不同搭配的同义词
they
are
the
synonyms
differing
in their collocations, such
as
a dole
to the
unemployment /
an offering
to
the church.
Semantically different
synonyms:
they are the synonyms
differing slightly in what
they mean,
such as
escape/flee.
Polysemy :
多义关系
it is a term used in semantic analysis
to refer to a lexical item
which has
more than one meaning.
Radiation
:
辐射性
it is the semantic process in which the
primary meaning stands at
the center
and the secondary meaning radiates out of it.
Concatenation
:
连锁型
it is the semantic process
in
which the meaning
of a
word
moves
gradually
away
from
its
primary
meaning
in
succession
so
that
the
present
meaning seems to have no connection to
the primary meaning.
Homonymy:
同音、同形异义词
the
phenomenon
that
different
words
may
be
identical in sound or spelling or in
both is called homonymy.
Homographs:
同形异义
they are the words which
happen to be the same in spelling,
but
differ both in sounds and meaning.
Homophones:
同音异义
they are the words which happen to be
identical in sound,
but differ both in
spelling and meaning.
Complete
homonyms:
同音、同形异义
they
are
the
words
which
happen
to
be
identical both in sound and spelling,
but differ in meaning.
Hyponymy:
it
refers
to
the
sense
relation
between
a
more
general,
more
inclusive
word and a more
specific word. It is concerned with semantic
inclusion.
Superordinate:
上座标
词
it refers to the word
which is more general in meaning .
Hyponym
:
下义词
it refers to the more
specific word.
Co-hyponym:
it refers to hyponym of the same superordinate.
Gradable
antonyms:
可分等级反义词
they are the antonyms which differ in
terms
of degree.
Complementary
antonyms
：
互补反义词
they are non-gradable antonyms which
are
semantically
complementary
to
each other, therefore, they do not
permit
degrees of
contrast.
Converse
antonyms:
逆反反义词
they
are
the
antonyms
which
are
interdependent,
showing the reversal of a relationship
between two entities.
4 Sentence
meaning
Sentence
meaning:
A sentence meaning is
abstract, context-independent in contrast
to utterance meaning which is concrete
and context-dependent.
Entailment(
包含关系
)
：
Entai
lment
is
basically
a
semantic
relation
(or
logical
implication
).
It
refers
to
something
that
logically
follows
what
is
asserted
in
the
utterance.
Presupposition
（预设关系）
< br>: A presupposition in semantics refers to what is assumed
by the speaker and or
assumed by him to be known to the hearer before he
makes the
utterance. In a broader
sense, presupposition can be defined in ordinary
language as
any
kind
of
background
assumption
against
which
an
action,
theory,
expression
or
utterance makes sense or
is rational.
5 Analysis of
Meaning
Componential analysis----a way
to analyze lexical meaning
The word man
can be analyzed in to a series of semantic
features such as
[+MAN,
+ADULT, +MAN]
(+means the presence of a feature
while- means the absence of a
feature).
Componential
analysis
（
成
分
分
析
法
）
：
It
is
a
way
proposed
by
structural
semanticists to
analyze word meaning, based on the belief that the
meaning of a word
can be analyzed I to
a series of meaning components or semantic
features. Contrasts
are usually
presented in terms of +or -. These feature symbols
are usually written in
capitalized
letters.
Predication analysis
(
述谓结构分析法
)----a way to
analyze sentence meaning
Pr
edication
（述谓结构）
: It is the
abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
< br>Argument(
论元
变元<
/p>
)
:An argument is a logical
participant in a predication, largely
identical with the nominal element
（
s
）
in a
sentence.
Predicate(
谓词
)
：
A
predicate
is
something
said
about
an
argument
or
it
states
the
logical relation linking
the arguments in a sentence.
Chapter7
Pragmatics
语用学
Pragmatics studies the meaning of words
in context, analyzing the parts of meaning
that
can
be
explained
by
knowledge
of
the
physical
and
social
world,
and
the
socio-psychological
factors influencing communication, as well as the
knowledge of
the time and place in
which the words are uttered or written.
Context
Situational
context(
< br>情景语境
)
:
It
is
what
speakers
know
about
what
they
can
see
around them.
Linguistic
context
: It is what has been said
before in the conversation, the
“
history
”
of
things said so far.
Social
context(
社会语境
):
It
is the generally knowledge that most people carry
with
them in their minds, about areas
of life and specific and possibility private
knowledge
about the history of the
speakers themselves.
Entailment
Entailment:
An entailment is
something that logically follows from what is
asserted
in an utterance.
Presupposition
Presupposition:
Presuppositions
are
implications
that
are
often
felt
to
be
in
the
background
—
to be
assumed by the speaker to be already known to the
addressee.
1
：
言内行为
Locutionary Act
It
is
the
basic
and
physical
act
of
utterance,
or
producing
a
meaningful
linguistic
expression. This act is concerned with
the literal meaning.
2
：
.
言外行为
Illoc
utionary Act
This act
involves the specific purpose or real intension
that the speakers have in mind.
3
：
.
言后行为
Perlocutionary
Act
It is the
act of an utterance on the hearer; it is the
hearer reaction.
4
：
.
会话含义
Conversational
implicatures
According
to
,
it
refers
to
the
extra
meaning
not
contained
in
the
utterance,
understa
ndable
to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s
knowledge or knows
why and how he
violates intentionally one of the four maxims of
the CP.
5
：礼貌原则
Politeness principle
It
is
series
of
maxims,
proposed
by
Geoffrey
Leech
as
a
way
of
explaining
how
politeness op aerates in conversational
exchanges. Leech defines politeness as forms
of behavior that establish and maintain
comity. That is the ability of participants in a
social interaction to engage in
interaction in an atmosphere of relative harmony.
6::
合作原则
Cooperativ
e Principle
It’s
proposed
and
formulated
by
,
a
pragmatic
hypothesis,
is
about
that
the
participants
must
first
of
all
be
willing
to
cooperate,
otherwise,
it
would
not
be
possible for them to
carry on the talk.
合作原则的准则
4Maxim of Cooperative
Principle
数量
the maxim of
Quantity
你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求
Make your
contribution as informative as required;
Do
not make your contribution more informative than
is required
质量
the maxim of Quality
-----
不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话
Do not say what you believe
to false.
Do not say for
which you lack adequate evidence
关系
the maxim of
relation-----
使你的话与话题相关
be
relevant
方式
the maxim of manner-
---
-
避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序
Avoid obscurity of expression and
ambiguity;
Be brief/be orderly.
Chapter8
:.
言语社区
Speech
Community
It refers to a
group of people who form a community and share at
least
one speech
variety as
well as similar linguistic norms.
Language
varieties
（语言变体）
: Variety is
a generic term for a particular coherent
form of language in which specific
extra linguistic criteria can be used to define it
as a
variety.
Register
（语域）
: it
is the situational use of language, a variety used
for a particular
purpose or in a
particular setting.
Dialect: it refers to any regional,
social or ethnic variety of a language.
Regional dialect: it refers
to the language variety used in a geographical
region..
Received
Pronunciation
（标准发音）
:
Received
Pronunciation
is
the
supposed
acceptable standardized pronunciation
of the middle 20
th
century
.It is a non-localized
accent, which
enjoys high prestige and has become a marker of
upper class.
Sociolect
: it refers to the
linguistic variety characteristic of a particular
social class.
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