新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理

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Chapter 1: Introduction

stics:

语言学

It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

(

Linguistics

studies

not

any

particular

language

,but

it

studies

language

in

general)

l linguistics:

普通语言学

The study of language as a whole is called

general linguistics.

(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )

ge:

Language

is

a

system

of

arbitrary

vocal

symbols

used

for

human communication.

ptive

(

描述性

):

A

linguistic

study

aims

to

describe

and

analyze

the

language people actually use.

5.

prescriptive(< /p>

规定性

):

It

aims

to

lay

down

rules

for

“correct

and

standard”

behaviors.

i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.

6.

sy nchronic(

共时语言学

):

the description of language at some point of time

in hiatory

7.

diachronic (

历时语言学

)

:the description of language as it changes through

time

3)

speech

（口语）

Writing

（书面语）

These

the

two

media

of

communication.

Modern

linguistics

regards

the

spoken language as primary, not the written.

(speech is prior to writing)

(

语言

):

refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members

of the speech community.

It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide

by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.

9.

parole(

言语

):

refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

It

is

concrete

use

of

the

conventions

and

the

application

of

the

rules.

(Saussure )

10.

co mpetence(

语言能力

):

the

ideal

user’s

knowledge

of

the

rules

of

his

language

11.

performance(

语

言

应

用

):

the

actual

realization

of

this

knowledge

in

linguistic communication.

(Chomsky)

traditional grammar and modern linguistics

stics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive

linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.

3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.

Functions of language.

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descriptive function.

2. the expressive function

social function

Chapter 2: Phonology

音系学

phonetics

:

the study of the phonic medium of language;

it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages

9.

The three branches of phonetics

(1).Articulatory phonetics (

发音语音学

) (longest history)

(2.)Auditory phonetics

（听觉语音学）

(3)Acoustic phonetics (

声学语音学）

2. Speech organs: three important areas

⑴

Pharyngeal cavity

咽腔

---- the throat;

⑵

The oral cavity

口腔

---- the mouth;

⑶

Nasal cavity

–

鼻腔

--- the nose.

The principle source such modifications is the tongue.

The tongue is the most flexible.

International

Phonetic

Alphabet

[IPA]:

the

basic

principle

of

the

IPA

is

using

one

letter

selected

from

major

European

languages

to

represent

one

speech sound.

Broad transcription

宽式音标

. The transcription of speech sounds with letter

symbols only.

Narrow transcription

窄式音标

The transcription of speech sound with letters

symbols and the diacritics.

Aspirated and unaspirated

1).

phonology:

音系学

It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form

patterns

and

how

these

sounds

are

used

to

convey

meaning

in

linguistic

communication.

4. Phone, phoneme, allophone

A

phone

音素

is a phonetic unit or segment.

The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are

all

phones.

Phones

do

not

necessarily

distinguish

meaning,

some

do,

some

don’t, e

.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].

A

phoneme

音位

is a phonological unit;

it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is

represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme

/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].

Allophones

音

变

体

----

the

phones

that

can

represent

a

phoneme

in

different phonetic environments

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sequential rule

,

⑴

Sequential rule

(

序列规则

): rule governing the combination of sounds in a

particular language.

⑵

Assimilation rule

（同化规则）

: rule assimilating one sound to another by

copying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.

⑶

Deletion

rule

（省略规则）

:

rule

governing

the

deletion

of

a

sound

in

a

certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.

6. Suprasegmental features

（超切分特征）

⑴

Stress

Word stress and sentence stress

⑵

Tone

声调

Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration

of the vocal cords.

English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.

⑶

Intonation

语调

When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than

to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.

English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:

falling tone (matter of fact statement)

rising tone (doubts or question)

the fall-rise tone (implied message)

the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)

For instance,

“That’s not the book he wants.

Chapter 3: Morphology

1).

Morphology

形态学

:

refers

to

the

the

study

of

the

internal

structure

of

words

and the rules by which words are formed

2).

Morpheme

词素

:

It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.

3).

Free morpheme

自由词素

:a

morpheme can be a word by itself.

4).

Bound

morpheme

.

黏着词素

:

a

morpheme

that

must

be

attached

to

another

one.

5).

Allmorphs

词素变体

:the variant forms of a morpheme

Chapter 4: Syntax

Syntax

句法学

:

Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that

govern the formation of sentences.

Word-level categories

1,Major lexical categories

2. minor lexical categories

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To determine a word

’

s categorie,three critera are usually employed

g tion bution.

Phrase

:syntactic units that are built around a centain word category

complementizers

words which introduce the sentence complement

complement clause

the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizers

D-structure:

formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head

’

s

subcategorization properties

S-structure:

corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which

results form appropriate transformation .

Chapter 5: Semantics

Semantics:

语义学

can be simply defined as the study of meaning.

1

）

The naming theory(

命名论

)

Oldest notions concering primitive one.

It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar

Plato.

words are just names or labels for things.

2

）

The conceptualist view

（意念论）

It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers

to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of

concepts in the mind.

（语境论）

①

Meaning

should

be

studied

in

terms

of

situation,

use,

context

—

elements

closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:

②

Situational context: spatiotemporal situation

③

Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co

-occurrence or collocation.

④

For example, “black”

in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in

meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president

or presidency in different situation.

4) Behaviorism

（行为主义论）

Bloomfield

①

Behaviorists

attempted

to

define

meaning

as

“the

si

tuation

in

which

the

speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.

②

The story of Jack and Jill:

Jill

Jack

S_________r --------s_________R

3. Sense and reference

①

Sense-

--- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is

the

collection

of

all

the

features

of

the

linguistic

form;

it

is

abstract

and

de-

contextualized.

②

Reference

----what

a

linguistic

form

refers

to

in

the

real,

physical

world;

it

deals

with

the

relationship

between

the

linguistic

element

and

the

non-

linguistic world of experience.

4. Major sense relations

Synonymy

（同义关系）

Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.

Words that are close in meaning are called

synonyms.

同义词

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