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语言学知识
语言学是对语言的系统研究，
对于一个学习英语的人来说，
应该懂一点语言学的知识，
它可
以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言，下面介绍
一点语言学知识。
I. Introduction
1. What is Language
Language
is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for
human communication.
2. What is
Linguistics(
语言学
)
Linguistics is the scientific study of
language.
Basic
Distinctions(
区分
) in
Linguistics
3.1 Speech and Writing
One general
principle(
原则
) of linguistic
analysis is the primacy of speech over writing.
Writing
gives language new
scope(
范畴
) and uses that
speech does not have.
3.2
Descriptive(
描述性
) or
Prescriptive(
说明性
)
A
linguistic
study is descriptive
if it describes
and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive
if it
tries to lay down
rules for
3.3
Synchronic(
共时
) and
Diachronic(
历时
) Studies
The description of a language at some
point in time is a synchronic study and The
description of a
language as it changes
through time is a diachronic study.
3.4
Langue(
语言
) and
Parole(
言语
)
This
is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist
Saussure (
索绪尔）
early last
century. langue
refers
to
the
abstract
linguistic
system
shared
by
all
the
members
of
a
speech community
and
parole refers to the
actualized(
实际的
) language, or
realization of langue.
3.5
Competence(
能力
)and
Performance(
行为
)
Competence is the ideal
language user's knowledge of the rules
of his language. Performance is
the
actual realization of this knowledge in
utterances(
发声
).
Scope of Linguistics
General
linguistics is the study of language as a whole.
Phonetics(
语音学
) is
the branch of linguistics which studies the
characteristics of speech sounds
and
provides methods for their description,
classification and transcription.
Phonology(
音韵学
) is
the branch of linguistics which studies the sound
patterns of languages.
Morphology(
词法
) is
the branch of linguistics which studies the form
of words.
Syntax(
句法
)
is
the
branch
of
linguistics which
studies
the
rules
governing
the combination
of
words into sentences.
Semantics(
语义学
)
is the
branch
of
linguistics which
studies
the
meaning
of
language.
Applied
linguistics(
应
用
语<
/p>
言
学
)
is
the
study
of
the
teaching
of
foreign
and
second
inguistics
is
the
study
of
the
relationship
between
language
and
linguistics is the study of the
relationship between language and the mind.
Historical
Linguistics(
历史语言学
) is the
study of language changes.
Anthropological
linguistics(
人文语言学
) uses the
theories and methods of anthropology to study
language variation and language use in
relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of
man.
Neurolinguistics(
神经语言学<
/p>
) studies the neurological basis of
language development and use in
human
beings.
Mathematical
linguis
tics(
数学语言学
)
studies
the
mathematical
features
of
language,
often
employing models and
concepts of mathematics.
Computational
linguistics(
计算语言学
)
is
an
approach
to
linguistics
in
which
mathematical
techniques and
concepts(
概念
) are applied,
often with the aid of a computer.
II.
Phonetics(
语音学）
1.
scope of phonetics
Speech
sounds
may
be
studied
from
different
angles,
thus
we
have
at
least
three
branches
of
phonetics:
Articulatory
phonetics(
发音语音学）
we
may
examine
the
way
in
which
a
speech
sound
is
produced
to
discover which
vocal
organs
are
involved
and
how
they
coordinate(
协调）
in
the
process.
Auditory phonetics
（
听觉语音学）
we may
look into the impression a speaker makes on the
hearer
as
mediated(
调节）
by
the ear, the auditory
nerve(
神经）
and the
brain.
Acoustic
phonetics
(
声学语音学）
we
study
the
physical
properties
of
speech
sounds,
as
transmitted
（传送）
between mouth and ear.
2.
The vocal organs
The vocal organs may
be viewed as consisting of three parts, the
initiator of the air-
stream,(
气流
发生器官）
the producer of
voice
（声音发生器官）
and
the resonating
cavities.
（声音共振器
官）
3. Consonants(
辅音）
Places of
articulation(
发音部位）
:
bilabial,(
双唇）
Lab
iodentals,
（
唇齿）
dental,
（
齿）
alveolar,
（齿龈）
retroflex,
（
卷舌）
palate-
alveolar,
（
上齿龈）
palatal,
（
上颚）
velar,
（
软腭）
uvular,
（小舌）
glottal(
声门）
Manners of articulation:
plosive,
（
暴破）
nasal,
（
鼻音）
trill,
（
颤音）
lateral,
（
边音）
fricative,
（摩擦）
approximant,
（近似音）
affricate
（破擦）
4. V
owels
(
元音）
The
classification
of
vowels:
the
height
of
tongue
raising
(high,
mid,
low),
the
position
of
the
highest
part
of
the
tongue(front,
central,
back),
and
the
degree
of
lip
rounding(rounded,
unrounded)
III.
Phonology
（音韵学）
1.
phonemes(
音素）
：
a
distinctive(
有区别的）
sound in a language.
2. Allo
phones(
音位变体）
：
The
nondistinctive sounds are members of the same
phoneme.
3. Minimal
pairs(
最小对立体）
：
word forms which differ from each other
only by one sound.
4. Free variation
(
自由变异）
：
If two
sounds occurring in the same
environment(
环境）
, they does
not produce a different word form, but
merely a different pronunciation of the same word.
5.
Complementary
distribution(
补充分类）
：
Not
all
the
speech
sounds
occur
in
the
same
environment. When two
sounds never occur in the same environment
egmental phonology(
超音段音位）
：
the study of phonological
properties(
性质）
of
units
lager than the segment-phoneme.
They are
syllable(
音节）
，
stress,
（
重音）
word stress, sentence
stress. pitch
（音调）
and
intonation
（语调）
.
IV
.
Morphology
（词法）
1.
inflection(
构
形
法
）
：
the
grammatical
relationships
through
the
addition
of
inflectional
affixes.(
屈折词缀）
2. Word-
formation(
构词）
：
the
processes(
过程）
of
word variations signaling lexical
relationships.
（表明词法关系）
They are
compound(
合成）
and derivation
(
派生）
.
3.
Morpheme(
词素）
：
the smallest unit in terms of
relationship between expression and content.
4.
Allomorph(
同质异象
变体）
：
some
morphemes
have
considerable
variation,
for
instance,
alternate shapes or phonetic forms.
5. Types of morphemes: They are
roots,(
词根）
affix
（词缀）
and stem
（词干）
.
6.
Lexicon(
语言词汇）
：
in
its most general sense, is synonymous with
vocabulary.
7. Closed-class
words(
封闭性）
and
open-class
words(
开放性）
：
the
former whose membership is
fixed or
limited and the latter whose membership is in
principle(
实际上）
indefinite or unlimited.
8. Word
class(
词性）
：
It
displays a wider range of more precisely defined
classes.
9.
Lexeme(
词位）
：
the
smallest unit in the meaning system of a language
that can be distinguished
from other
smaller units.
10.
Idiom(
习语，成语）
：
Most
phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true
for a sequence of
words(
词序）
which is
semantically
（语义上）
and often
syntactically(
句法上）
restricted.
（限
制）
11.
Collocation(
搭配）
：
the habitual(
习惯的）
co-occurrences
（同时出现）
of individual lexical
items.
V
. Syntax
(
句法）
1.
Positional
relation
or
word
order
（词序）
：
the
sequential(
顺序）
arrangement
of
words
in
a
language.
2. Construction or
constituent
(
句子结构）
：
the overall process of internal
(
内部）
organization of
a grammatical unit .
3.
Syntactic
function(
句法功能）
：
the relationship between a linguistic
form and other parts of the
linguistic
pattern in which it is used. The names of
functions are expressed in terms of subjects,
objects, predicates,
modifiers,(
修饰语）
complements
（补语）
,
etc.
4.
Category(
范畴）
：
It
refers to classes and functions in its narrow
sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject,
predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase,
etc. The categories of the noun include number,
gender, case
and countability.
5.
Phrase:
a
single
element
of
structure
containing
more
than
one
word,
and
lacking
the
subject-predicate
structure typical of clause.
6.
Clause:
a
group
of
words
with
its
own
subject
and
predicate,
if
it
is
included
in
a
larger
sentence.
7. Sentence: It is
the minimum part of language that expresses a
complete thought.
VI. Semantics
1. Conceptualism or mentalism
(
概念主义）
：
Following
F. De Saussure(
索学尔）
's
the linguistic sign is said to consist
of a signifier
（所指）
and
signified
（被指）
, i.e., a sound
image
and a concept, liked by a
psychological
（心理的）
（相关联系）
2.
Mechanism(
机械主义
）
：
Some
linguists,
Bloomfield,(
布鲁费尔德）
for
example,
turned
to
science
to counter
（反）
-act
the
precious
theories
and
this
leads
to
what
call
the
mechanistic
approach
（方法）
. The
nature of this theory has nothing to do with the
scientific study of mental
phenomena.
（智力现象）
3. Contextualism
（
语境主义）
：
It is based on the
presumption(
假定）
that one can derive meaning
from or reduce it to observable
context.
4. Behaviorism (
行为主
义）
：
Behaviourists attempt to
define (
定义）
the meaning of a
language
form as
情景）
in which the
speaker utters
（说话）
it and the
response
（反应）
it
calls forth in the hearer.
5.
functionalism (
功能主义）
：
functionalists as represented
(
代表）
by the Prague
school
（布拉格
学派）
linguists and neo-Firthian
（新弗斯）
linguists, approach the
problem from an entirely new
orientation
（方法）
.
They argue
（争辩）
that meaning could only be
interpreted
（解释）
from
its use or function in
social life.
6. Sense relationships:
While reference deals with the relationship
between the linguistic elements,
words,
sentences,
etc.,and
the
non-linguistic
world
of
experience, sense
relates
to
the complex
system
of
relationships
that
hold
between
the
linguistic
elements
themselves.
They
include
synonymy(
同
义
词）
，
a
ntonymy(
反
义
词）
,hyponymy(
下层
次
）
Polysemy(
一
词多
义
）
and
Homonymy (
同音异义词）
7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1)
componential
（
成分）
analysis which defines the meaning of a
lexical
element
in
terms
of
semantic components.(
意义成分）
2)
predication
(
表述）
analysis
in
which
the
meaning
of
a
sentence
is
not
merely
the
sum
of
the
meanings
of
the
words
which
compose
it.
3)
relational
components
in
which
the semantic
analysis
of some words
presents
a
complicated picture, because they show
relations between two and perhaps more terms.
VII. Language variation
(
语言变化）
1. Lexical
change(
词汇的变化）
：
cha
nges in lexis.
2. Invention:
(
新造词）
new entities.
3.
Compounding
合成词）
New words are
sometimes constructed by combining two old words.
4. Blending:
(
混合词）
：
It is a
relatively complex form of compounding, in which
two roots are
blended
by
joining
the
initial
part
of
the
first
root
and
the
final
part
of
the
second
root,
or
by
joining the initial parts
of the two roots.
5. Abbreviation or
clipping
缩写）
A
new
word is created by cutting the final part or
cutting the
initial part.
6.
acronym
取首字母的缩写词）
It is made
up from the first letters of the name of an
organization,
which has a heavily
modified (
修饰）
headword.
7.
metanalysis
再分化）
It refers to
a process through which a division
is
made where there were
note before.
8. Back-
formation
逆构词）
It
refers to an abnormal(
非正常）
type of word-formation where a
shorter word is derived by
deleting(
去掉）
an
imagined affix from a longer form already present
in the language.
9.
Analogical
creation:(
类比造词）
It
can
account
for
（说明）
the co-
existence
of
two forms,
regular and irregular, in the
conjugation(
结合）
of some English verbs.
10. <
/p>
Borrowing
（借用）
：
English
in
its
development
has
managed
to
widen
her
vocabulary
by
borrowing words from other languages.
11. Phonological
change(
音变）
：
It is
related to
language variation in the
phonological system of
language.
It
includes
loss,(
省音）
addition,
（加音）
assimilation,
（
同化）
dissimilation.
（异
化）
12.
Grammatical change: Changes in both
morphology
（
词法）
and
syntax
（
句法）
are listed under
this
heading.
13. Semantic
change:(
语义变化）
It includes
broadening,
（语义扩大）
narrowing,
（语义缩小）
meaning
shift,
（意义转化）
class shift
（词性转换）
and folk
etymology.
（词源变化）
14. Orthographic change
：
(
正字法）
Changes can
also be found at the graphetic level.
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