-
英汉对比研究
第一章:综合语与分析语
(Synthetic vs. Analytic)
p>
综合语的特征是运用形态变化来表示语法关系。
Webster?s
Ninth New Collegiate
Dictionary
给综合语定义为:
A
synthetic
language
is
“characterized
by
frequent
and
systematic
use
of
inflected
forms
to
express
grammatical
relationships”.
拉丁语、德语及古英语等都属于这类语言。
< br>分析语的特征是不用形态变化而用词序及虚词来表达语法关系。
The
Random House College Dictionary
给分析
语法定义为:
An analytic language is
“characterized by a relatively frequent use if
function words, auxiliary verbs, and
changes in word order to express
syntactic relations, rather than of
inflected forms”.
汉语是典型的分析语。
现代英语是从
古英语发展出来的,仍然保留着综合语的某些特征,但也具有分析语的特征:有形态变化,但
不象典型的综合语那么复杂。词序比汉语灵活,但相对固定;虚词很多,用得也相当频繁。现代英语运用遗留 下
来的形态变化形式(
hereditary inflect
ions
)
、相对固定的词序及丰富的虚词来表达语法关系,因
此属于综合
—
分析
语(
synthetic-analytic
language
)
。
形态变化、
词序和虚词是表达语法意义的三大手段。
这些语法手段在英汉两种语言中具有不同的特征。
此外,
英语采
用拼音文字,句有语调(
intonation
)
;汉字绝大多数为形声字,字有声调(
tone
)<
/p>
。英汉表达方式的差异与
这些因素均有密切的关系。
一,
英语有形态变化,汉语没有严格意义的形态变化。
所谓形态变化,即词的形式变化,主要包括以下两方面:
p>
1
.构词形态,即构词作用的词缀变化(
a
ffixation
)
,包括大量的前缀(
prefix
)和后缀(
suffix
)
。英语的词缀
灵活多变,常常一缀多义,不仅规模大,数
量多,而且种类齐全。汉语利用词缀构词仍处在发展中,不论规模、
数量或种类,都不及
英语。
英语可以运用丰富的词缀构词造句,如:
He moved astonishingly fast.
He moved with astonishing rapidity.
His movements were astonishingly rapid.
His rapid movements astonished us.
His movements astonished us by their
rapidity.
The rapidity of his movements
was astonishing.
The rapidity with
which he moved astonished us.
He
astonished us by moving rapidly.
He
astonished us by his rapid movements.
He astonished us by the rapidity of his
movements.
(O. Jesperson)
他行进的速度快得令人惊讶。
他行进速度之快,令人惊讶。
他的快速行进使我们惊讶。
我们对他的快速行进感到惊讶。
<
/p>
英语通过词性变化,改变词性,用这些词灵活组句,可以表达一个几乎相同的意思;汉语没
有词性变化,就
难以用这么多的句式来表达同样的意思。英汉互译时,往往要改变词性、
转换词类,才能通顺地表达愿意。
2
.构词形态,即表达语法意义的词形变化。如:
1
我给他一本书。
I gave
him a book.
他已给我两本书。
He has
given me two books.
他爸爸常常给他一些书。
His father often
gives him books.
汉语的“我”
、
“他”没有形式变化,同一个词可以表示主格、宾格或所有格;
“书”没
有形式的变化,可以
表示单数或复数;
动词
“给”
也没有形式变化,
可以表示现在、
< br>过去或已完成的行为。
但英语对应的词
I, me,
him,
his, book, books, gives, gave, has
given
却有形式变化。这类变化,往往是英语初学者首先遇到的难点之一。
英语的动词、助动词和情态动词常常结合起来,运用其形态变化,表示
动词的时态、语态和语气。汉语没有
这类变化,有时虽然可借助一些半独立的词语来表示
,但多数是隐含在句中或上下文里的。如:
1) They
told me that by the end of the year they would
have been working together for thirty years.
他们告诉我,到(那年)年底,他们在一起工作就有三十年了。
2) New factories are being built all
over the country.
全国到处都在兴建工厂。
3)
During the wartime, years like these would have
meant certain death for many people. Many would
have become
beggars and others would
have been compelled to sell their children.
战争期间(要是)碰到这样的年景,很多人肯定会死去,很多人会逃荒要饭,很多人会被迫卖儿卖女。
现代英语的形态变化主要是动词的变化
(conjugation)
和名词、代词、形容词和副词的变化
(declension)
,以及
上述的词缀变化。
这些变化有:
性
(gender)
、
数
(number)
、
格
(case)
、
时
(tense)
、
体
(aspect)
、
语态
(voice)
、
语气
(mood)<
/p>
、
比较级
(degree of
comparison)
、人称
(person)
和词性
(parts of speech)
< br>等。有了这些变化,一个词(或词组)常常可
以表达几种语法意义,例如从词的形
态可以判别它的词类、在句中的作用、与其他词的关系等。汉语没有形态变
化,一般要通
过借助词序、安排词序、隐含意义或其他办法分别表达语法意义:
1)
Thus
encouraged, they made a still bolder plan for the
next year.
(由于)
受到了这种鼓励,
他们为第二年制定了一个更大胆的计划。
(过去分词短语
< br>thus encouraged
含被动意义,
作状语
,表示原因;形容词比较级
bolder
含有与过去相比较的意
义)
2)
I regret not having taken her advice.
我后悔没有听她的劝告。
(
not…
advice
是动名词完成体的否定式,作动词的宾语)
3)
The book is
said to have been translated into many languages.
据说此书已译成多种语言。
(双重被
动式,其中
to have been
translated
之一是不定式完成体的被动态)
现代英语的形态变化虽然不如典型的综合语那样复杂,但却使
用十分频繁。
H.
Sweet
认为
“The
English
inflections, few as their number is,
are an integral and essential part of the
language…. The excessive frequency of these
forms
gives
them
gr
eat
morphological
weight….
We
cannot
but
accept
Sayce?s
dictum.—?once
inflectional,
always
inflectional?.
Hence
while
English
appears
as
almost
uninflectional
when
compared
with
such
a
language
as
Latin,
it
appears in the opposite light when
compared with
an isolating language
such as Chinese.”
严格说来,汉语没有形
态变化。汉语的助词(如“们”表示复数)
、动词助词(如“着”
、
“了”
、
“过”表示
动词的体)与结构助词(如“的”
、
“地”
、
“得”表示定语、状语与补语)虽然似英语的形态变化,但这些成分的
使用在汉语里常常缺乏普遍性;有的场合一定要用,有的场合可用可不用,有的场合甚至
不能用。英语形态变化
的使用确有严格的规则,往往带有强制性。例如,汉语可以说“学
生们”
,但在“两个学生”
、
“他们是
学生”中,
却不需要加“们”
,而英语的
“student”
却都加
“
-
p>
s”
。又如,
“我们(的)学校”
(our school)
、
“你看见(了)没
有?”
(have you see it?)
中的“的”和
“了”可用可不用,而英语相应的词却有形态变化。再如,
“着”表示动作正在进
行,但
“He is dying”
却不能译
为“他正在死着”
,而应为“他快要死了”
。
< br>
二.英语词序比较灵活,汉语词序相对固定。
形态变化与词序有密切的关系。形态变化越多的语言,词序越灵活,反之亦然。拉丁语是典型的形态语言
,
词即使移了位置,也可以从其形态标志识别其语法意义,而词序很灵活。例如,拉丁语
的主语和宾语有不同的形
2
式,其位置可以改变而意义却完全相同,
Amor
vincit omnia=Omnia vincit
amor
,意思都是“爱能征服一切”
(love
conquers all things)
。汉语是典型的分
析语,词没有形态标志,位置不能随便移动,词语之间的关系主要通过安排
词序及使用虚
词来表达。例如上句,若把词序改变成“一切能征服爱”
,则意思完全相反。英语属综合
--
分析语,
词序不如拉丁语灵活,<
/p>
但也不如汉语固定。
例如上句,
若把词序
改变为
“
All things conquers love
”
,
从主语
(
things
)
与动词的形态不能保持
一致(
S-V concord
)判断,此句为语法病句。它不
能象拉丁语那样改变词序而仍然表达相
同的意思,又不能象汉语句那样改变词序表达不同
的意思。英语有部分形态变化,词序改变了,可以凭借这些形
态标志判断句子是否合乎语
法,但形态变化又不如拉丁语齐全,词序不能任意改变。英语的语法意义可以通过词
序或
虚词来表达,在许多情况下也可以用形态标志来表达。形态、词序和虚词这三大语法手段互相配合或交替运
用,使英语词语和从句的位置比汉语灵活。
1
.英汉句子的主要成分如主语、谓语动词、宾语或表语的词序基本上相同,一般说来,
英汉的排列顺序都
是:
主
---
动
---
宾
(表)<
/p>
。
但与汉语相比,
英语词序倒置的现象比
较多。
H. Fowler
将英语词序的倒装想象归为九类:
1
)
Interrogative inversion
(疑问倒装)
What in
the world
do you mean? (C. Dickens)
你的意思究竟是什么呀?
2
)
Imperative inversion
(命令倒装)
Come
you, everybody!
大家都来吧!
3
)
Exclamatory inversion
(惊叹倒装)
What a
beautiful voice
you have! (B. Shaw)
你有多么好的嗓音啊!
4
)
Hypothetical inversion
(假设倒装)
A pair of
black eyes might have done some
execution
had
they been
placed in a smoother face. (W. Thacheray)
一对乌溜溜的眼睛如果长在一副再细净些的脸庞上,就足以迷
人的了。
5
)
Balance inversion
(平衡倒装)
Inexpressible
was the
astonishment of the little party when they
returned to find that Mr. Pickwick had
disappeared. (C.
Dickens)
当这
一伙人回来发现皮克威克先生不见了的时候,那惊愕之态简直无法形容。
6
)
Link inversion
(衔接倒装)
Such
are the rewards that
always virtue. (Shakespeare)
这样的报酬常常是美德所应该得到的。
7
)
Signpost inversion
(点题倒装)
By
negation is meant
the denial or absence
of facts.
否定是指否认事实或不存在的事实。
8
)
Negative inversion
(否定倒装)
Not a
finger
did I lay on him. (R. Quick)
9
)
Metrical inversion
(韵律倒装)
Good
friend for Jesus
?
sake,
forbear
To dig the dust enclosed here,
Blessed
be he that spares
these stones
And
curst
be he that moves stones.
(Shakespeare)
好朋友呀,看在耶穌的份上,请你住手
别来挖这块土丘。
那肯保存这几块石头的,但愿他添福添寿,
< br>那要来打扰我的骸
(hai)
骨的,但愿呀挨骂挨咒。<
/p>
这些倒置现象,部分是由于语法的需
要,部分是出于修辞的需要。英语词序能够如此灵活倒置,形态变化和运用
丰富的连接词
是两个重要原因。汉语缺乏形态变化,少用或不用连接词,词序相对固定。除了诗词或某些惯用的
句式外,汉语词序的变化大多是把宾语提到动词或主语之前,从而引起宾语的句法功能的改变,如“她文
章写的
3
很好”
< br>,
“酒他喝得太多”等等。英语有结构性倒装
(stru
ctural inversion)
,也有功能性倒装
(fu
nctional inversion)
,汉
语则功能性倒装
居多。英语形态变化规则要求句中词语之间保持语法关系一致
(grammatical concord)
,有了这种
p>
一致关系,
此语之间只要前后呼应,
就容易
灵活安排。
H. Sweet
认为
“
the free word order in such
a language as Latin
is mainly the
result of concord
”
。汉语没有这种一致关
系,只能按照表意的需要排列词序。如:
1)
He had to quit
the position and went in exile, having been
deprived of his power.
他被剥夺了权力之后,只好离职,流落他乡。
2)
We had been
dismayed at home while reading of the natural
calamities that followed one another for three
years after
we left China in 1959.
(Hewlett and Nowell Johnson: to china at
Ninety)
我们于
1959
年离开了中国。
此后,
< br>中国连续三年遭到自然灾害。
当我们在国内读到这些消息时,
心情颇为低沉。
3)
No man thinks more highly than I do of
the patriotism, as well as abilities, of the very
worthy gentlemen who have just
addressed the house. (Patrick Henry)
p>
刚才几位可尊敬的先生向全体代表发言了。对于这几位先生的爱国精神及才干,我个人比任何
人都更钦佩。
4)
It
must
be
a
great
satisfaction
to
all
ranks
and
races
engaged
in
our
common
effort
that
the
Japanese
have
been
challenged and beaten in jungle warfare
in Burma, and that their boastfulness should have
received a salutary exposure.
在缅甸丛林战中,日军
受到挑战并被击败。他们大言不惭的自吹,这回可得到了有力的揭露。这对于从事于我们
共同事业的各阶层人士、各族人民来说,必然是一件大快人心的事。
5)
Rocket
research has confined a strange fact which had
already been suspected: there is a
“
high-temperature
belt
”
in the
atmosphere, with its center roughly
thirty miles above the ground.
人们早就怀疑大气
中有一个高温带,其中心距地面约
30
英里高的地方。利用火箭
加以研究后,这一奇异的事实
已得到了证实。
2
.汉语的定语一般在名词的前面,
而英语的定语在许多情况下可以通过形态变化或借助连接词置于名词的
前后,位置比较灵
活。
(
1
)
一个很重要的问题
A very important
question
A question of great importance
(
2
)一个可以辩论的题目
A debatable subject
A
subject which can be debated
(
3
)以空前的速度
At an
unprecedented speed
At a speed
unprecedented
英语的修饰词和被修饰词有时
借助形态变化或连接词还可以互相转化,
从而改变其修饰关系,
汉语则往往不
能有类似的转化:
(<
/p>
1
)他的话并没有前后矛盾之处。
There is no inconsistency in what he
said
There is nothing inconsistence in
what he said
(
2
)她
闪亮的眼睛说明她非常激动。
Her sparking
eyes betrayed her great excitement
The
sparkle of her eyes betrayed her great excitement.
(
3
)住在这监牢似的房子里,活着没
多大意思。
There
isn
?
t much to live for in
this jail of a house. (Charles Dickens)
p>
(
4
)我那笨蛋医生叫我写遗嘱。
4
My
fool of a doctor told me to make my will. (John
Galsworthy)
汉语的定语一般都紧挨着名词,但
英语的定语有时可以远离名词,借助语法关系前后一致的原则,中间插着
一些别的词语。
这种情况,若不细加分析,往往导致误译:
Many
sketches are in existence of peasants seated by
the roadside and men and women at work in the
fields.
至今仍保存着许多速写,画的是坐在路旁的农民和在田里劳动的男男女
女。
The second aspect is the
application by all members of society, from the
government official to the ordinary citizen, of
the special methods of thought and
action that scientists use in their work.
< br>第二方面是使用科学家们在工作中所运用的特殊的思想方法和行动方法。
社会所有
成员到普通老百姓,
都要使用
这些方法。
汉语没有形态变化,少用甚至不用关联词,没有定语从句
,名词之前的定语不宜太长。英语借助形态变化、
丰富的关联词和其他连接手段,定语可
以前置于,也可以后置,后置的短语和从句可以很长。如:
They were forced to put forward an
alternative of separate development for all races
in this so-called homelands, with a
promise of eventual independence for
the Africans in these areas.
他们不得不变换花样,
提出所有种族在自己的所谓本土上分别发展的办法,
并许诺非洲
人最终在这些地区获得独
立。
An
element is a substance that cannot be thrown down
into simpler substance by ordinary chemical means.
元素是一种物质,这种物质不能用一般的化学方法在分解成更简单的物质。
翻译英语定语时,必须根据原文的意思和汉语的习惯灵活处理。即使是翻译
英语的单词定语,有时也要改变
其位置,或转换成汉语的谓语或其他成分,如:
Keith: A little yellow, ragged,
lame, unshaven beggar. (John Galsworthy)
基思:一个讨饭的,身材矮小,面色苍黄,衣衫褴褛,瘸腿,胡子拉茬。
She had such a kindly, smiling, tender,
gentle, generous heart of her own. (W. M.
Thackeray: Vanity Fair)
她心地善良,为人乐观,性情温柔,待人和蔼,器量又大。
She was an intelligent, attractive and
somewhat temperamental daughter of a well-to-do
doctor in Haddington. ( The
new
Encyclopedia Britannica)
她是哈丁顿一位富裕医生的女儿
,有才华,又迷人,但有点脾气。
类似以上数个描写性词语连用时,在英语里多作定语,少作谓语
(heavy
attribute,
small
predicate)
,在汉语里
则多作谓语,少作定语
(small attribute, heavy predic
ate)
。翻译时若能灵活利用这一不同点,译文往往比较符合表
达习惯。
3
.在表达多层逻辑思维时,英语可充分利用语法三大手段(形态变化,词序和虚词)
,常用包含许多修饰成
分或从句的复合句或长句,句中各部分的顺序比较灵活。汉语表达
同样的意思时,主要借助词序和虚词,常用短
句、分句、流水句,按照一定的时间和逻辑
顺序,有先有后,有主有次,逐层叙述。这些英汉句子里的语序,常
常不同,甚至完全相
反。
一般说来,
句中若有叙述部分和表态部分,英语常常是表态
部分(判断、结论等)
在前,
叙述部分(事实、描写等)在后,
即先总提后分述,或先讲结果后追述过去,汉语的顺序往往相反;句中若有长
短部分,英
语常常是先短后长,
即头轻脚重
(end-weight)
p>
,汉语的顺序则往往相反;汉语的时间顺序和逻辑关系常
常按照由先
到后、由因到果、由假设到推论、由事实到结论这样的次序排列,而英语可以借助形态变化和丰富的
连接词语,根据句子的意思和结构的需要灵活排列,顺序往往和汉语不同。试比较:
< br>
1
)
I
believe
strongly
that
it
is
in
the
interests
of
my
countrymen
than
Britain
should
remain
an
active
and
energetic
member of the
European Community.
我强烈地认为,英国应该继续是欧洲共同体
中一个积极而充满活力的成员,这是符合我国人民的利益的。
1)
2)
1)
2)
1)
2)
3)
5
2
)
I
was all the more delighted when, as a result of
the initiative of your Government, it proved
possible to reinstate the
visit so
quickly.
由于贵国政府的提议,才得以这样快地重新实现访问。这使我感到特
别高兴。
3
)
On
earth,
where
fog
or
rain
would
interfere
with
transmission,
lasers
would
have
to
be
beamed
through
evacuated
pipelines to
prevent power loss.
地球上的雾或雨会干扰激光的传播,因此,
为了防止能量的损失,激光必须从真空管道通过。
4
)
It
is easy to see what weight can be overcome and
what thrust is necessary to maintain flight.
要知道应该抵消多大重力并需要多大推力才能保持飞行,这很容易。
5
)
Nowadays it is understood that a diet
which contains nothing harmful may result in
serious disease if certain important
elements are missing.
如今人们知道
,如果食物中缺少了某些重要的成分,即使其中不含有任何有害的物质,也会引起严重的疾病。
< br>
6
)
The assertion that it was difficult, if
not impossible, for a people to enjoy its basic
rights unless it was able to determine
freely its political status and to
ensure freely its economic, social and cultural
development was now scarcely contested.
如果一个民族不能自由地决定其政治地位,不能自由地保持其经济、社会和文化的发展,要享有其基本权利,即
使不是不可能,也是不容易的。这一论断,几乎是无可置辩的了。
由于英汉语思维习惯和表达方式的差异,
改变语序、
重组结构并成了翻译中常用的手段,
长句翻
译尤其如此,
如:
(1)Category
II
contains
only
four
items,
(2)and
I
shall
say
no
more
about
them
except
that,
(3)since
they
are
under
consideration, (4)we should not let the
grass grow under feet, but attempt, as early as
possible, to arrive at a common
understanding (5) in the interest of
humanity.
这是一个并列复合句,包孕多个修饰语和从句,表达五层的意思。
汉语要表达同样的意思,必须按照逻辑顺
序重新安排,拆成七个部分,组成三个句子,顺
序是
l
-
3
—
5
-
4
-
p>
2
:
第二类只包
括四项,
而且都已在审议之中。
为了人类的利益,
我们应该不失时机,
力图尽快求得共同的认识。
除此
之外,别的我就不多说了。
(1)I believe that (2)I speak for every
sincere and serious representative in the United
Nations --- (3)so I am encouraged to
believe by the speeches to which we
have already listened this morning --- (4)when I
say (5)that the anniversary must be
an
occasion for an honest assessment of our failures
in the past, (6)matched by an equally determined
will to do better in
the future, (7)so
that we can escape from frustration and (8)turn
the anniversary into an inspiration and an
achievement.
这是一个多重复合句,通过连接词和形态变化把八层意思连
接起来,先表态,后叙事,其语序几乎与汉语的
表达习惯相反:
5
-
6
-
7<
/p>
—
8
-
4
—
l
-
3
-
2
:
p>
这次周年纪念会应该是一个老老实实地评估我们过去的失误的时机,
同时也应该是一个表达我们有同样决心
要做好今后工作的时机。
这样,
我们就可免遭挫折,
并可把这次周年纪念变成一种鼓舞和
成就。
当我讲这番话时,
我相信
---
今天上午我们听到的发言也使我相信
---
我是代表联合国每一位真诚和严肃的代表讲话的。
三、英汉都有大量的虚词,但各有特点。
英语的虚词(
form words
)
,也称结构词(
structural
words
)或功能词(
function words
)
,包括冠词、介词、助
动词、并列连接词(
coordinators
)和从属连接词(
< br>subordinators
)等。汉语的虚词(
emp
ty words
)包括介词、助
词(
particles
)和连词等。英汉虚词都是与实词(
not
ion
words
或
full
p>
words
)相对而言的,在句中主要起辅助和
连接等作用。英汉虚词各有特色:不仅种类不同,用法也不同。如:
p>
1
.英语经常使用定冠词和不定冠词,这是英语的一大特点。用不用
冠词,什么地方用冠词,用什么冠词,
常常有正误之分或意思之别。这是中国人学习英语
的难点之一。因为汉语没有冠词,英译汉时可以省略,但有时
6
一个冠词之差,意思大不相同,这时汉语就要用不同的词语
来表达。如:
(1)
out of
question
毫无问题
out
of the question
不可能
(2)
take the
chair
(当会议主席)主持会议
take a chair
坐下
(3)
a hundred
and one
许许多多
one
hundred and one
一百零一
(4)
she was with
a child
她带着一个孩子
she was with
child
她怀着孕
(5)
They are students of our
school
他们是本校的部分学生
They are the students of our
school
他们是本校的全体学生
(6)
I have lived
here for more than a year
我住在这里已一年多了。
(一年又几个月)
I have
lived here for more than one year
我住在这里已
不止一年了。
(可能两、三年)
(7)
She served
me with a kind of
coffee.
她请我喝一种特别的咖啡。
She served me with coffee of a kind.
她请我喝一种不大好的咖啡。
p>
2
.汉语有丰富多彩的助词,这是汉语的一大特点。助词又分为动态
助词(如:着、了、过)
、结构助词(如:
的、地、得)和语气
助词(如:吗、呢、吧、啊、嘛、呀、哪)等。这些助词的作用,有一部分相当于英语的形
态变化,有一部分却能左右结构、表达丰富的语气色彩:_
啦
他早来啦!
(确定语气)
Why, he
?
s been
here a long time!
这回我可亲眼看见啦!
(感叹语气)
This time
I?
ve actually seen it for
myself.
她真来啦?(疑问语气)
Has she really
come
?
吧
今天不会下雨吧?(揣测语气)
It
isn
?
t going to rain today,
is it
?
你好好想想吧!
(提议语气)
Just think it
over.
明天就明天吧。
(认可语气)
All right, let
?
s
make it tomorrow.
咱们走吧。
(商量语气)
Let
? s go.
p>
打吧,打不下去;跑吧,跑不了,敌人只好投降。
(假设语气)
p>
Unable to fight on or to
escape, the enemy were forced to surrender.
呀
快来呀!
(请求语气)
Come here, quick
!
他的话说得对呀!
(说服语气)
What he said is right.
啊
多好的天儿啊!
(赞叹语气)
What a fine day
!
你这话说得是啊。
(肯定语气)
What you said is quite true.
你啊,老这样下去可不行!
(加重语气)
7
Look
!
you
can
?
t go on like this.
你可要小心啊!
(嘱咐语气)
Do be careful
!
嘛
这也不能怪他,头一回嘛。
(答辩语
气)
He
?
s
not to blame. After all, it was the first time
he
?
d done it.
呗
你不会骑车就学呗。
(当然语气)
You
can
?
t ride a
bike
?
Well, learn to.
呢
p>
远得很,有好几千里地呢。
(确认语气)
It
?
s s a long way
off
-
thousands of li away.
哪
加油干哪!
(催促语气)
Speed
up
!
(
Come
on
!
)
语气助词(
emotional
pa
rticles
)是汉语最重要的特征之一。英语没有这类词,句中的语气一般要借助语
调
(
intonation
)或其他办
法来表达:
You must be
feeling rather tired
.
你一定觉得有点儿累。
你一定
觉得有点儿累了。
(较肯定的语气)
你一定
觉得有点儿累了吧。
(半信半疑的语气)
汉语有了语气词,表示情绪的语调就居于次要的地位了,同时
,汉语的声调(
tones
)用来表示词义的变化,
就不大适宜用来表示情绪。因此,英语常被称为语调语言(
intonat
ion language
)
,汉语则常被称为声调语言(
p>
tone
language
)
。
3
p>
.英语常用介词,汉语则少用介词。英语介词除了单独作为一类词使用外,还可以构成形式多
样的合成介
词和成语介词。这类词和短语不仅数量大,而且使用得十分频繁,与汉语相比
,显得相当突出。汉语介词大多是
从动词“借”来的,严格说来,
“现代中国语根本就没有真正的介词”
。英译汉时,英语的介词常常译成汉语的动
p>
词:
1
)
What is he
at
?
他正在
干
什么?
2
)
John voted
with
the Tories
.
约翰投
票
支持
保守党。
3
)
He
is a man
above
vulgar
interests
.
他是一
个
脱离
了低级趣味的人。
4
)
Peter drew his knife
on
the
robber
.
彼得拔刀向那个强盗
砍
去。
5
)
It
looks as if we are
in for
a
storm.
看来我们免不了要
碰上
一场暴风雨了。
6
)
If
a man couldn
?
t walk into a
room and tell who was
for
him and who was
against
him,
then he was
not much of a politician. (
D
.
Halberstam
:
The Best and the Brightest)
要是一个人不能一上任就看出谁<
/p>
支持
他,谁
反对
他,那他就不配搞政治。
4
.英语表示并列和从属关系的连接词,不仅种类和数量比汉语多,而且使用率也比汉语高。除了
与汉语相
似的连接词(如:
or
或者,
not
only
?
but
< br>also
不但?而且,
if
如果
,
because
因为,
unless
除非,
when
当?时候
等)外,英语还有连接代词、关系代词、连接副词和关系副词(这些代词和副词如
who
,
whom
,
whose
,
that
,<
/p>
8
what
,
which
,
when
,
where
,
why
p>
,
how
等)
。这
些词在句中使用得相当频繁。汉语没有这类起连接作用的代词和
副词,也少用或不用其他
连接词,句中的并列或主从关系,在口语、非正式文体和古汉语中常常借助词序、上下
文
和副词等表达,只有在书面语和正式文体中才常用连接词,但其出现频率也不及英语。如:
(老师,因为我不
舒服,所以我想出去一下。
)
1
)
This was
the period
when
Einstein
began the research
which
resulted in the creation of his famous Theory of
Relativity.
就在这期间,爱因斯坦开始进行了一
项研究。经过这项研究,他创立了著名的相对论。
2
)
He
spoke
so
well
that
everybody was convinced
of his innocence
.
他说得那么好听,谁都相信他是无辜的了。
3
)
Practically an substances expand
when
heated
and
contract when
cooled
.
几乎所有的物质都是热胀冷缩的。
p>
汉语有些副词(如“才”
、
“就”
、
“也”
、
“还”等)
经常跟连词配合使用,既起副词的修饰作用,又起关联上
下语句的作用,如“只有?才?
”
“如果?就?”
“即使?也?”
“不
但?还?”等。这类副词有时也可以单独起
关联作用,如:
1
)
Even if
you go there it
won
?
t do any
good
.
去了也是白去的。
2
)
Only after
I had heard his
explanation did I understand what it was all
about
.
听了他的解释,我才知道是怎么回事。
3
)
We
cannot really learn anything
until
we rid ourselves of
complacency
.
不克服自满情绪,就无法学到任何东西。
汉译英时,常常要增补连接词:
1
)火车未停,请勿开门。
Don
?
t open the
door
until
the train
stops
.
2
)鸡蛋未孵,勿先数维。
Don
?
t count your
chickens
before
they are
hatched
.
3
)喝水不忘掘井人。
When
you drink water, think of those
who
dug the
well
.
4
)无事不登三宝殿。
I
wouldn?t
come to you
if
I had not something to
ask of you·
英语组
合语句的手段是形态、词序和虚词配合使用,三者相辅相成,互相调剂,互相替换。
H<
/p>
.
Sweet
认为,
“
inflection itself has exactly the
same function as the use of form
words.
”如:
the
nature of man
(虚词)
man
?
s nature
(形态代替虚词,同时改变词序)
tell him the news.
(词序)
Tell the
news to him.
(借助虚词改变词序)
汉语没有发达的形态变化,组合语句主要借助词序和虚词。
<
/p>
英语表达语法意义的三大手段有严格的规范,有时虽可根据表达的需要选择某种手段,但一
般都有强制性,
如在什么情况下该用词形变化,用词的何种形式(如一
< br>ed
或一
ing
)
,在什么情况下该用虚词,用什么虚词(如
“
to<
/p>
”或“
for
”
)
,如此等等,都有一定的规则,随意违反这些规则,往往不符合表达规范。汉语则不同
。张志公
指出,
“汉语语法是强制中有灵活性,灵活中有强制性
。??在汉语里,带有绝对强制性的规则比较少,而既有
9
规则又有可选择的方式多,因此,从表达的需要来选择的余地就很大了。
”例如,汉语的虚词,就大多数而论,
很难说是纯粹的语法成分。如果是纯粹的
语法成分,那就当用必用,不当用必不可用。然而,汉语的虚词在一般
当用的地方可以不
用,用与不用对句子的语法完整性并没影响。如:
These
problems have been solved.
这些问题已经解决了。
这些问题已经
被
解决了。
Yesterday he got up very early.
昨天他很早起床。
昨天他很早
就
起床
了
。
四、英语是语调语言,汉语是声调语言。
形态、词序和虚词这三大语法手段与语音表意手段也有密切的关系。
由于现代英语的形态变化减少,
词序变得相对固定,
又没有类似汉语的语气助词可用来表达各种语气,
因此,
借助语
音表意便成了一种重要的手段。
C
.
L
.
Wrenn
对此有过较为清楚的论述
:
In
a
language
in
which
inflexion
has
been
greatly
reduced,
word-order
must
become
relatively
more
rigid.
0n
consequence of this tendency to a fixed
word-order will be an increase in the role of
intonation in the language. For since
the varying of the order of words is no
longer so possible as a means of conveying shades
of meaning such as those that
depend on
emphasis, this emphasis must be obtained b3 other
means; and the varying of tone to indicate
meanings no
longer expressible by
placing emphatic words in appropriate positions in
the sentence (as is done in Latin) is one of the
chief of those employed in Modern
English. Moreover in a language of the Germanic
type with a relatively fixed stress,
like English, musical variety of tone
to indicate shades of meaning becomes much more
natural. For these reasons such a
language
as
Chinese,
with
the
distinctions
of
inflexions,
and
even
the
whole
scheme
of
parts
of
speech
1
completely
removed, finds
its natural way of development through a
fundamental system of tones and tone-groups
(called tonemes).
A change of tone in
Chinese will turn ?t
o
buy?
into ?to sell?, for instance. In English, though
th
e process of reduction of
inflexion and its consequences has
reached nothing like so far as the so-called
monosyllabism of Chinese, and therefore
intonation
does
not
play
so
fundamental
a
part
in
the
syntax
of
the
language,
intonation
has,
nevertheless,
a
very
important
and
far-reaching
role.
A
rising
or
falling
tone
in
the
parts
of
the
sentence
determines
much
of
its
meaning.
Moreover, there is a very close bond
between stress and tone or pitch, a strong stress,
for instance, often corresponding
with
a rising tone. Such a sen
tence as ?You
are going to buy that house? may be a
state
ment of fact (declaratory) or a
question (interrogative) according to
whether the tone is falling or rising at its end.
英语的语音表意手段主要是语调(
intonation
)重音
(str
ess)
。语调的升降变化有六种:降调
(falling
tone)
、升调
(rising
tone)
、降升调
(fall-
rise)
、升降调
(rise-fall)
< br>、平调
(level)
和降加升调
(fall-plus-rise)
。这些语调的变化可以表达
不同的语义和语气,重音的改变可以表达不同的强调和词类。语调和重音密切配合,可以表达意义的差别:
p>
(下
划线为重读)
1
)
You may not
go.
你不可以去。
You may
not go.
你可以不去。
2
)
All cats
don
?
t like
water<
/p>
.
(
=All cats
dislike water
)猫都不喜欢水。
All cats don
?
t
like water. (=Not all cats like
water)
并不是所有的猫都喜欢水。
3
)
I
didn
?
t leave home, because I
was afraid of my
father.
我没离开家,因为我怕我父亲。
I didn
?
t leave
home because I was afraid of my father.
我离开了家,但不是因为我怕我父亲。
汉语没有形态变化,词序比英语固定,虽有语气助词表达各种
语气,语音表意仍为一种相当重要的手段。汉
10
语的语音手段主要是声调(
tone
)
。汉语的每个音节,都有能够区别字义、词义的声调。声调有四个:阴平、阳
平、上声和去声,是音节的高低升降变化。声母和韵母相同的字、词,其意义往往靠不同的声调来区别。掌握 不
住声调,很可能把“我爱妈”说成“我挨骂”
,把“你的衣服
”说成“你的姨夫”
。
H
.
Sweet
曾谈到在一次中英
官员谈判时,译员告
诉英国人,中国官员把英国称为“
your country of devils
p>
”
;
(
guigu
o
鬼国)
,因为中国人常把
外国人称为
“洋鬼子”
。后来才知道译员听错了,中国官员说的是“
gui
guo
贵国”
(
your
honored
or
distinguished
country
)
,可见声调表意的重要性。
此外,汉语的语音表意还有其他一些手段,如语调,以及重读与轻读的差别:
I
我叫他
去。
(
“去”重读)
I
?
ll ask him to
go
.
我叫他去。
(
“去”轻读)
I
?
ll go and call
him
.
我想起来了。
(
“起来”重读)
I
?
ll get up
.
我想起
来了。
(
“起来”轻读)
I
?
ve thought it out.
p>
汉语语音的另一特点是音节匀称,成双成对。古代汉语单音节占优势,现代汉语双音节占优势
,如“言”分
化成“言论”
、
“言谈”
、
“言语”等。有些单音节词的活动受到限制,便扩展为双音节
,如在前后加上一个不增加
多少意义的字(
“老虎”
、
“石头”
)
,或把两个
意义相同或相近的字合起来用(
“墙壁”
、
“艰难”
)
,或两字重叠(
“星<
/p>
星”
、
“宝宝”
)
。有些三音节词压缩成双音节,如“落花生
---
花生”
、
“机关枪
--<
/p>
机枪”
。许多双音节词往往还要求别
的双
音节词跟它相配,
如
“伟大人物”
、<
/p>
“进行调查”
。
汉语存在着大量以种种方
式组成的四字格,
如
“丰衣足食”
、<
/p>
“日月星辰”
、
“左思有想”
、
“动手动脚”
、
“千头
万绪”
、
“微乎其微”等。
总之,
双音节化和四音节化
(
< br>predominance of disyllables and quadrisyllables over monosyllables and trisyllables
)
是现代汉语的主要节奏倾向。
由于这一主要倾向的影响,
汉语音节匀称,
词语和句式往往成双成对,
对偶、<
/p>
对照、
排比、反复和重叠成了中国人所喜闻乐见的修辞方式。与英
语相比,汉语的这类均衡美和节奏美,不能不说是一
大特色:
It was a day as fresh as grass growing
up and clouds going over and butterflies coming
down can make it. It was a
day
compounded from silences of bee and flower and
ocean and land, which were not silences at all,
but motions, stirs,
flutters, risings,
fallings, each in its own time and matchless
rhythm.
绿草萋萋,白云冉冉,彩蝶翩翩,这日子是如此清新可爱;蜜峰无言,
春花不语,海波声歇,大地音寂,这日子
是如此安静。然而并非安静,因为万物各以其特
有的节奏,或动,或摇,或震,或起,或伏。
附加:
文字的特点
p>
一国文字有它特异的地方,不可不知。中国诗因为汉字单音,所以可以写得整齐,有对仗,西
方诗也有行,
有所谓音步,也相当整齐,而不如中国诗。至于对仗,也可以有一点,谈不
到工整。他们的文章无非把一句话两
面说一说而已。
我要提起的“得失”
、
“成败”一类的词,并非
指“得失”
、
“成败”
。以前论翻译时
承友人萧定韩兄提过这一
点,近看顾炎武的《日知录》
,里面有
一篇“通鉴注”
(卷二十八)
,也想到“古人之辞宽缓不迫”<
/p>
,所以“爱憎”
指的是“憎”
,
“得失失也”
,
“缓急急也”
< br>(如《史记·仓公传》
:
“缓急无可使者”
,意思是“遇到急事无人可以差
使”
。
)
“成败败也”
,
“同异异
也”
,诸如此类。翻译的人看见英文
loss
< br>遇到某处情形,大可译成“得失”
,不必害
怕。至于写文
章,更不用迟疑。
A
difference arose between the neighbors over the
height of the fence
.我们会译成:
“邻
居之间为了篱笆的高度
惹起了一场争论。
”
这一句里的
height
当然是
“
高度”
。
不过中国话不是这样说的。
我
们说
“
(为了篱笆的)
高低”
。
照顾炎武在他的《日知录》卷二十八“通鉴注”里说:
“古人之辞宽缓不迫”
,所以“言憎而并及爱”
,
p>
“得失,失
也。??利害,害也。??成败,败也。
”下面还有例子,所以我这里用的“高低”就是“高”
。为这一点鲁迅责
11
备过梁实秋,梁先生也没有引《日知
录》自辩。日后鲁迅自己也用了同样的词,我也不必详细列出。
凡一国文字译成它国文字,就要多用很多字,这几乎是通例。
原因在可省的地方不敢省,而不可省的又非译
出不可。其实如果懂得两种文字的特点,有
些地方也可以免掉词汇。论到翻译,很简单地可以说,找出译文相当
的字词,添进译文不
可少的字词,删去译文里用不着的字词,如此而已。我朋友之中有能用中英文写作的,连自
己的中文译成英文都有啰嗦、不可读之处。这是因为他一拿笔翻译,就被原文捆住,挣扎不得了。可见翻译是另
外一种不同的文字活动。
中国文字历
史悠久,词汇丰富,我们要学得齐全,太不容易。我们现在常用的“大家”是从前宫中近臣或后
< br>妃用来对皇帝的称呼,唐诗里常用到。这是很容易误会的。
第二章:聚集与流散
(
Compact vs
.
Diffusive
)
p>
英语句子有严谨的主谓结构。这个结构通常由名词性短语(
NP
p>
)和动词性短语(
VP
)构成。主语不可或
缺,
谓语动词是句子的中心,两者协调一致(
S
-
V
concord
)
p>
,提纲挈领,聚集各种关系网络(
connective
-
nexus
)
。
因此,英语句子主次分明,层次清楚,前呼后拥,严密规范,句式呈“聚集型”
(
compactness
)
。
英语的主语和谓语动词搭配,形成句子的核心(
kernel
)
,谓语动词控制句子主要成分的格局
。句子尽管错综
复杂,
千变万化,
但根
据谓语动词的类别和特征,
都可以把英语的主谓结构归结为五种基本句型,
即,
SV
,
SVP
,
SVO
,
SVOO<
/p>
,
SVOC
:
基本句型(一)主语十动词
The telephone
rang
.电话铃响过了。
The meeting has
begun
.会议开始了。
基本句型(二)主语十动词十表语
We are
students
.我们是学生。
She appeared
cheerful
.她显得很高兴。
基本句型(三)主语十动词十宾语
Labor created
man
.劳动创造了人。
The news surprised
me
.这消息使我感到惊奇。
基本句型(四)主语十动词十间接宾语十直接宾语
She sang us a
song
.她给我们唱了一首歌。
I sent him a
letter
.我给他寄了一封信。
基本句型(五)主语十动词十宾语十宾语补足语
He painted the
door green
.他把门漆成绿色。
We elected him
our monitor
.我们选他当班长。
p>
英语各种长短句子,一般都可以看作是这五种基本句型及其变式、扩展、组合、省略或倒装:
1
、基本句型的变式。上述五种基本
句型都是陈述句、肯定句和主动句。由这些基本句型可以转换为以下几
种主要的变式:<
/p>
a
)陈述句变疑问句。陈述句通过改
变语序或使用助动词可以变为疑问句,如:
Has the meeting
begun
?会议开始了吗?
Did you sent him a
letter
?你给他寄信了吗?
b
p>
)肯定句变否定句。肯定句通过使用否定词、助动词可以变为否定句,如:
< br>
We
are not students
.我们不是学生。
The telephone
did not ring
.电话铃没有响。
12
c
)
主动句变被动句。基本句型(三)
、
(四)
、
(五)的大部分主动句通过使用助动词(和介词)
、改变
词序和
动词的形态可以变为被动句,如:
The
door was painted
green
.门已漆成绿色。
A letter was sent to
him
.
已经给他寄了一封信。
d
p>
)
“
There
+
be
十主语”结构。这种表示“存在”的句型可以看作是基本句
型(一)的不同形式:
There was a meeting
yesterday
.昨天有一个会议。
There came a knock at the
door
.有敲门的声音。
p>
2
.基本句型的扩展。上述五种基本句型及其变式,还可以通过以下
方式加以扩展:
a
)增加
修饰语。修饰语主要是定语和状语,可以采用单词或词组,也可以采用从句,如:
Now the integrated
circuit
has reduced
by many times
the size of
the computer of
which it forms a part, thus creating
a
new generation of portable minicomputers.
< br>现在集成电路成了计算机的组成部分,使计算机的体积大大缩小,从而产生了新一代的袖珍式微型计算机。
When Chou En
-
lai
’
s door opened
they saw a
slender
man
of more than average
height with gleaming eyes and a
face so
sinking that it bordered on the beautiful.
p>
周思来的房门打开了。他们看到了一位身材修长的人,比普通人略高,目光炯炯,面貌引人注
目,称得上清
秀。
b
p>
)扩展基本句型的成分。基本句型的成分是单词,若采用词组或从句,句型结构即得以扩展:
The
kaleidoscope
of
shifting
interests
of
the
nations
during
the
negotiation
made
it
impossible
to
sort
out
the
“
winners
”
and
“
losers
”
.
谈判期间,各国的
利益变化不断,好像万花筒似的,这就使人难以分辨出究竟谁是“胜者”
,谁是“输家”
。
The structure
of the steel and the resulting
properties
will depend on
how hot the street gets and how quickly
or
slowly it is cooled.
钢的结构及其形成的性质,取决于加热的温度和冷却的速度。
3
.基本句型的组合。基本句型及其
变式、扩展,还可以通过并列连词或标点连接起来,组合成并列句或并
列复合句:
A
few
stars
are
known
which
are
hardly
bigger
than
the
earth,
but
the
majority
are
so
large
that
hundreds
of
thousands of earths could be packed
inside each and leave room to spare; here and
there we come upon a giant star large
enough to contain millions of millions
of earth.
人们所知道的几千个星球并不比地球大多少,但绝大多数的星球却
大得足以容下成千上万个地球还绰绰有
余;我们到处都能遇见大得足以容纳千千万万个地
球的巨星。
Our
Charter,
being
a
historical
product,
has
its
limitations,
and
although
we
have
always
considered
that
strict
respect for the principles it embodies
is the key to considerable progress in
international coexistence, we now venture to
suggest
certain
changes,
which
are
technical
rather
than
political,
to
improve
the
machinery
available
to
the
Organization, since the lofty aims to
which we aspire will be the more readily
attainable the better the machinery at our
disposal.
我们的宪章,作为历史的产物,有
其局限性。因此,尽管我们一向认为,严格地尊重宪章所体现的原则是
国际共处中取得可
观进步的关键,
我们仍然冒昧地建议作出某些变更
---
技术性的而非政治性的变更
---
借以改善本
组织现有的机构,因为我们所掌握的机构越完善,我们所向往的崇高目标就越容易达到。
4
、基本
句型的省略。基本句型及其变式、扩展和组合,根据表达的需要,可以省略某些成分或词语。一般
说来,省略的部分可以复原,省略句仍然可以看作是基本句型的变体。如:
l
)
To err is
human
,
to forgive
(
is
)
divine
< br>.
13
人孰无过,恕过者神。
2
)
If one had but
two heads and neither required sleep
!
p>
(
T
.
H
.
Huxley
)
(
=
It
would be nice
if one had but two heads
and neither required
sleep
!
)
人要是有两个脑袋,而且都不需要睡觉,那就好了。
3
)
Every language
has its peculiarities; they are established by
usage, and whether
(
they
are
)
right or
wrong, they
must be complied
with
.
每种语
言都有特点,这些特点是在习惯使用中形成的,不论正确与否,都得遵守。
4
)
A serious
matter this for you and
me
.
(
B.
Shaw
)
(
= A serious
matter is this for you and
me
.
/This is a serious matter
for you and me
)
对你和我来说,这是件严重的事情。
5
、基本句型的倒装。基本句型及其变式、扩展和组合,根据表
达的需要,可以调换其正常的语序。一般说
来,调换的语序可以复原,倒装句也可以看作
是基本句型的变体:
l
)
The greatest
truths are the simplest, so
are the
greatest men
.
最伟大的真理总是最朴素的,最伟大的人物也是最朴素的。
2
)
Neither could
theory
do without practice
,<
/p>
nor
(
could
)
practice
(
do
)
without
theory
.
理论离不开实践,实践也离不开理论。
3
)
Such treatment
I did not
expect, for I never had a patron before
.
(
S
.
Jo
hnson
)
这种待遇是我所未曾意料到的,因为过去我从未有过恩主。
4
)
Naked
you want it,
naked
you
?
ll have it
.
p>
(
I
.
F
.
Aldridge
)
你要求把事实和盘托出,那就这样吧。
5
)
Deal with us nobly,
women
though we be
.
(
Mrs
.
Browning
)
虽然我们是妇女,请以高尚的态度对待我们。
6
)
Never
was night
so still; never
was a sky
so
deeply blue, nor stars so bright and
serene
.
夜从无如此沉寂,天从无如此深蓝,星亦从无如此明亮。
A
.
S
p>
.
Hornby
根据调语动词的类别及其与
其他词语的搭配习惯,把英语用谓语动词造句的型式归纳为
2
5
种;
Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English
则把动词句
型归纳为
6
类。此外,名词、形容词、副词等的造句
规则也有一定的型式。不管英语句型如何划分,一般都可从其结构形式找出一定的规律,并在词典里 加以编码,
以供仿效。
英语注
重句子结构完整,注重结构形式规范,句子尽管繁简交替、长短交错,但形式仍不致流散,其主要原
因是英语有许多聚集句子的手段,如形态标志及连接词语使各种成分关系明确,
“
it
”
、
“
there
”这类填补词
(
expletives
)使句子结构完整,等等。
O
.
Jespersen
指出,
“It became an
invariable custom to have a subject before
the verb, and therefore a sentence
which did not contain a subject was felt to be
incomplete. many of the rules concerning
the use of
it
are
seen to be due on the one hand to the speaker? s
wish to conform to certain patterns of sentence
con
-
struction
found
in
innumerable
sentences
with
other
subjects
or
objects,
and
on
the
other
hand
to
his
wish
to
avoid
clumsy
combinations which might even sometimes lead to
misunderstandings.
英语句
子复杂而不流散的另一重要原因是:句子成分之间或词语之间必须在人称、数、性和意义等方面保持
协调一致的关系(
concord
或
agreement
)
。这一原则包括以下三方面:<
/p>
l
.语法一致(
grammatical
concord
)
:即在语法形式上保持主语和谓语动词之间数与人称的一致(如动词单
数第三
人称加
-s
;
-es
< br>)
,
主语和表语之间数的一致
(
如
She is a student; They are
students
)
,
宾语和宾语补足
语之间
数的一致(如
I found the boy a
bright pupil; I found the boys bright pupils
)
,人称代词、某些限定词和它们的照应对
象之间的
人称、数或性的一致(如
The girl has seen her
mother
)
,等等。
2
.意义一致(
notional c
oncord
)
:即在意义上保持一致,如主语形式为复数,但
意义为单数,谓语动词依意
14
义采取单数形式,反之亦然:
Two
thousand dollars
is
more
than he can afford.
两千元美金他可付不起。
My
family
are
all fond of
playing table tennis
.
我全家都爱打乒乓球。
非限定动词作状语或定语,其逻辑主语或逻辑宾语必须与句子
的主语或被修饰语保持协调一致:
l
)
Sent to zoos
in Tokyo and other cities,
the pandas
are reported to
have settled down very well
.
这些熊猫送到东京和其他城市的动物园以后,据说都适应得很
好。
2
)
Mary
felt sad not
to have been
invited
to the
banquet
.
玛丽没有被邀请去参加宴会,心里很难受。
3
.就近原则(
Principle
of proximity
)
:即谓语动词的人称和数往往和其
最靠近的词语保持一致,如:
Either you or I
am
going.
要么你去,要么我去。
Neither you, nor I, nor anyone
else
knows
the
answer
.你和我,以及其他任何人,都不知道这个答案。
英语句子成分之间这种协调一致的原则,使句子结构受到形态
的约束,因而句式严谨、规范、刻板,缺乏弹
性。
相比之下,汉语的主谓结构要复杂得多。主语不仅形式多样,而且可有可无:它可表示施事、受事, 也可表
示时间、地点;可用名词、动词,也可用形容词、数量词;句子可以没有主语,也
可以省略主语,还可以变换主
语并予以隐含。试比较下列英汉句子的主语:
1
)
文章翻译完了。
(受事主语)
The article has been
translated
.
2
)全市到处在兴建新工厂。
(地点主语)
New factories are being built all over
the city
.
3
p>
)现在正下着毛毛雨。
(时间主语)
It
?
s drizzling
at the moment
.
4
p>
)累得我站不起来了。
(无主句)
I
?
m so exhausted
that I can
?
t stand
up
.
5
)
他有个女儿,
()在北京工作,
()已经打电话去了,
()听说明天就能回来。
(变换主语并予省略)
He has a daughter, who
works in Beijing. Someone has phoned her and it is
said that she will be back
tomorrow
.
6
p>
)凤姐还欲问时,只听二门上传出云板,连叩四下,将风姐惊醒。
(
曹雪芹:
《红楼梦》
)
Before Xifeng could ask more she was
woken with a start by four blows on the chimebar
at the second gate
7
)如今没奈何,把
你雇在间壁人家放牛,每月可以得他几钱银子,你又有现成饭吃,只在明日就要
去了。<
/p>
(吴敬梓:
《儒林外史》
)
There is no way out but to set you to
work looking after our
neighbor
?
s buffalo.
You
?
ll make a little money
every
month, and
you
?
11 get your meals there
too. You are to start tomorrow.
汉语的
谓语也复杂多样:它可以是动词、名词或形容词;可以是一个动词,也可以是多个动词,还可以没
有动词;它可以是一个单词,也可以是多个词组。试比较下列英汉句子的谓语:
1
)
天高云淡。
(形容词作调语)
The sky is high and the clouds are
pale
.
2
p>
)他出国留学去了。
(连动式谓语)
He has gone
abroad for further studies
.
15
3
)我介
绍他加入协会。
(兼语式调语)
I recommended
him for membership of the
association
.
4
p>
)这项合同经理要签名。
(主谓词组作谓语)
This contract
should be signed by the
manager
.
5
p>
)这姑娘长得漂亮,鹅蛋形脸,两眼又深又黑,披着又长又密的头发。
She is a pretty
girl with an oval face, deep dark eyes and long
heavy clinging tresses
.
p>
6
)许多房子,盖着琉璃瓦,曲曲折折,无数的朱红栏杆。
(吴敬梓:
《儒林外史》
)
Many houses
were roofed with glazed tiles and set within
winding red balustrades
.
7
)他们这群人,又想吃人,又是鬼鬼祟祟,想法子遮掩,不敢直捷下
手,真要令我笑死。
(鲁迅:
《狂人日
记》
)
All these
people wanting to eat human flesh and at the same
time stealthily trying to keep
up appearances, not
daring
to act promptly, really made me nearly die of
laughter
.
p>
汉语不受形态的约束,没有主谓形式协调一致的关系,也就没有这种关系可以驾驭全句。汉语
主谓结构具有
很大的多样性、复杂性和灵活性,因而句式呈“流散型”
< br>(
diffusiveness
)
。
由于汉语重内在意念而不重外在形式,汉语的句型也就难以象
英语那样以谓语动词为中心从形式上去划分。
汉语句型的研究结果表明,按照句子结构去
划分句型,不仅型式量大繁杂(一般归纳为几十个句型不等,有的多
达
< br>130
多个句型)
,而且难以概括齐全,颇有争议。英语
重形合(
hypo-taxis
)
,较
宜以成分格局为主、功能意义
为辅来划分句型;汉语重意合(
p
arataxis
)
,较宜以功能意义为主、成分格局为辅来划
分句型。按照表意功能及表
达形式,汉语句型大体可以分为九大类:
1
.话题句,其基本格式是“话题语十评论语”
,如:
开车他没有经验。
He is inexperienced
in driving
.
婚姻的事我自己作主。
As for
my marriage, I
?
ll make my
own decision
.
这艘船是中国制造的。
This
ship was built in China
.
p>
2
.施事句,其基本格式是“施事语十动作语”
,如:
他在学习开车。
He is learning how to
drive
.
她点头表示同意。
She
nodded her agreement
.
雨水促使杂草生长。
The rain caused the
weeds to grow
.
3<
/p>
.关系句,即表达各种关系的复句,如:
(因为)他天天练习开车,
(所以)很快就学会了。
He soon learnt how to drive
because of his daily
practice
.
如处理得当,问题不难解决。
The
problem will not be difficult to solve, if
properly handled
.
只要虚心,就会进步。
Provided you are modest,
you
?
ll surely make
progress
.
4
p>
.呼叹句,即交谈中相互呼唤、应对或感叹的句子,如:
是呀,他车开得真好!
Yes,
he is an excellent driver
!
多么新鲜的水果啊!
How fresh the fruit
is
!
看她多精神!
Look how energetic she
is
!
5
.
祈使句,即表达要求、命令或请求的句子,如:
请勿酒后开车。
Please don
?
t
drink and drive
.
不要总以为自己对。
Don
?
t think you are always right.
别管我,救火要紧!
Don
?
t bother
about me
!
Put out the fire
first
!
6
.存现句,即表示人或事物存在或消失的句子,如:
16
黑暗中来了一部车子。
A car is coming in
the dark
.
前面是一片稻田。
There is a stretch
of rice fields ahead
.
还有许多工作要做。
Much remains to be done.
p>
7
.有无句,其基本格式是“领有者十(没)有十被领有者”
,如:
他有两部小车。
He has two cars.
她有热情,有朝气。
She is
full of vigor and enthusiasm.
此事有百利而无一弊。
It has every advantage and no
drawback
.
8
.描写句,其基本格式是“主题语十描写语(形容词)
”
,如:
这部小车很新。
This car is brand-
new.
房间干干净净。
The room
is neat and tidy
.
这东西又便宜又好。
It is
cheap but good.
9
.说明句,其基本格式是
“主题语十说明语(名词)
”
,如:
今天星期日。
Today is
Sunday
·
我上海人。
I
?
m from Shanghai.
这箱子八十磅。
This box
weighs eighty pounds.
尽管汉语可以从功能意义划分出几大类型,但其表现形式仍十分复杂。汉语是重语感、重变通的语
言,组句
的自由度很大,句子长长短短,不求形式齐整,而求意思通顺。许多表达形式灵
活多变,往往靠约定俗成。从形
式看,汉语似乎有不少非逻辑表达方式(
illogical
expressions
)
,试比较:
晒太阳
to bask in the sun.
晒衣服
to sun
one
?
s clothes
吃食堂
to have
one
?
s meals in the mess
吃苹果
to eat an apple
还他的债
to pay him
one
?
s debts
还他的钱
to pay him back
住四人
four people live in
…
住旅馆
to stay at a hotel
在家养病
to recuperate at home
闭目养神
to sit in repose with
one
?
s eyes closed
救火
fire fighting
救国
to save the nation
打扫卫生
to do some cleaning
打扫房间
to clean the room
补充缺额
to fill a vacancy
补充人力
to replenish manpower
恢复疲劳
to get refreshed
恢复健康
to recover
one
?
s health
汉语缺乏形态变化,缺乏词性标记,较少使用连接词,语句的结构关系较难分辨,因而语法歧义
的现象也比
较多,如:
烤羊肉
roast mutton / to roast
mutton
两个乡干部
two village
carders / carders from two villages
鸡不吃了
The chicken has stopped
eating. / I won
?
t eat any
more chicken.
17
汉语偏重意会,略于形式,因而脱离一定的语境的语句也
容易产生语法歧义,以下各例也是如此:
l
)他欠你的钱(他十欠你钱/他欠
你的十钱)
p>
2
)准备了两年的食物(准备了两年的十食物/准备了十两年的食物
)
3
p>
)对于他的态度(对于十他的态度/对于他的十态度)
4
)我和
他的老师(我和他的十老师/我十和他的老师)
5
)热爱人民的总理(热爱十人民的
总理/热爱人民的十总理)
p>
6
)神秘的少女的心(神秘的十少女的心/神秘的少女的十心)
p>
7
p>
)找到了孩子的妈妈(找到了孩子的十妈妈/找到了十孩子的妈妈)
8
)喜欢的是她(喜欢她/她喜欢)
9
)研究
方法很重要(研究的方法/对方法进行研究)
10<
/p>
)是前天发的电报(回答“这是什么”/回答“什么时候发电报”
)
11
)财务组应该清查(
“财务组”是施事:清查别人/“财务组”是受事:被清查)
12
)我差一点没跟他结婚(想跟他
结婚,事实上也跟他结婚了/不想跟他区结婚,也没有跟他结婚/跟不
跟他结婚无所谓,
不过事实上没有跟他结婚)
p>
英语受形态变化规则的约束,有不少词性标记,常用关系词和连接词,语句的结构关系比较清
楚,因而语法
歧义比汉语少。英语的语法歧义主要见于表意形式含糊的结构,尤其是模棱
两可的修饰关系,如:
l
)
John saw
Mary
with the binoculars
.
a
)约翰
用望远镜看到了玛丽。
(
with
短语
修饰
saw
)
b)
约
翰看见玛丽带着一个望远镜。
(
with
短语修饰
Mary
)
2
)
All of the
arrows didn
?
t hit the
target
.
a
)不是所有的箭都射中靶子。
p>
(部分否定)
p>
b
)所有的箭都没有射中靶子。
(全部否定
)
3
)
He
loves the dog more than his wife.
a
)他爱这只狗胜过爱他的妻子。<
/p>
(?
than he loves his
wife
)
b
)他比他妻子更爱这只狗。
(?
than his wife loves the
dog
)
4
)
I knew that you
had seen him before I met you.
a
)
我知道在我见到你之前,你就看见过他了。
(
= I knew that, before I met
you, you had seen him
)
b
)
在我见到你之前,我就知道你看见过他了。
(
= Before I met you, I knew
that you had seen him
)
汉语句式的多样化还表现在:有整句(
full senten
ce
)
,也有大量的零句(
minor
sentence
)
。整句有主谓结构;
零句没有主谓结构,由词或词组构成。零句是汉语的基本句型,可以作整句的主语,也可以作整句的谓语。整句
由零句组成,因而复杂多样,灵活多变。整句与零句混合交错,组成了流水句。吕叔湘曾
指出,
“汉语口语里特
多流水句,一个小句接一个小句,很多地
方可断可连。
”这些句式流泻铺排,主谓难分,主从难辨,形散神聚,
< br>富有节奏,不仅常见于口语,书面语也不乏其例:
l
p>
)接着,他继续设想,鸡又生鸡,用鸡卖钱,钱买母牛,母牛繁殖,卖牛得钱,用钱放债,这
么一连串的
发财计划,当然也不能算是生产的计划。
(马南邨<
/p>
(cun)
:
《燕山夜话》
)
He
went
on
indulging
in
wishful
thinking.
Chickens
would
breed
more
chickens.
Selling
them
would
bring
him
money. With this he
could buy cows. The cows would breed too and
selling oxen would make more money for him. With
the money, he could become a
moneylender. Such a succession of steps for
getting rich, of course, had nothing at all to
do with production.
2
)河面大小船只泊定后,莫不点了小小的油灯,拉了蓬。各个船上皆在后舱烧了火,用铁鼎罐煮饭,饭焖
熟后,又换锅子熬油,哗的把蔬菜倒进热锅里去。一切齐全了,各人蹲在舱板上三碗五碗
把腹中填满后,天已夜
18
了。<
/p>
(沈从文:
《鸭巢围的夜》
)
After
the boats large and small had moored, all lit tiny
oil lamps and fixed up mat canopies. Rice was
boiled in iron
cauldrons over fires in
the stern, and once this was cooked the vegetables
were fried in another pan of sizzling oil. When
the meal was ready, everyone aboard
could wolf down three or five bowls. By then it
was dark
.
(
Gladys
Yang
译)
3
)芙蓉镇街面不大。十几家铺子、几十户住家紧紧夹着一条青石板街。铺子和铺子是那样的挤密,以至一 p>
家煮狗肉,满街闻香气;以至谁家娃儿跌交碰脱牙、打了碗,街坊邻里心中都有数;以至妹娃
家的私房话,年轻
夫妇的打情骂俏,都常常被隔壁邻居听了去,传为一镇的秘闻趣事,笑
料谈资。偶尔某户人家弟兄内讧,夫妻斗
殴,
整条街道便会骚动
起来,
人们往来奔走,
相告相劝,
如同
一河受惊的鸭群,
半天不得平息。
不是逢圩的日子,
街两边的住户还会从各自的阁楼上朝街对面的阁楼搭长竹竿,晾晒一应布物:衣衫裤子,裙子被子。 山风吹过,
但见通街上空“万国旗”纷纷扬扬,红红绿绿,五花八门。再加上悬挂在各家
瓦檐下的串串红辣椒,束束金黄色
的苞谷种,个个白里泛青的葫芦瓜,形成两条颜色富丽
的夹街彩带??人在下边过,鸡在下边啼,猫狗在下边梭
窜,另有一种风情,另成一番景
象。
(古华:
《芙蓉镇》
)
The main street of Hibiscus was
not big. Paved with flagstones
it
was wedged between a dozen shops and a
few
scores of houses. These buildings
were so packed together that if one shop stewed
dog-meat, the aroma filled the whole
street;
if
some
child
fell
and
knocked
out
a
tooth
or
smashed
a
bowl,
the
whole
street
knew
of
it;
neighbors
often
overheard the secrets
girls confided to each other and the jokes between
young married couples, then regaled the whole
town with these titbits. If brothers
fell out or husband and wife came to blows, the
whole place was in a turmoil as all
rushed
to
intercede.
On
days
when
there
was
no
market,
people
fixed
up
long
bamboo
poles
between
their
upstairs
windows and those
across the street, to sun their clothes and
bedding. The wind blowing from the hills made
these flutter
like flags all the colors
of the rainbow. And the clusters of red peppers,
golden maize cobs, pale green calabashes and
gourds hanging from the eaves formed
bright borders on either side. Below, people came
and went, cocks crowed, cats
and dogs
padded to and fro
—
it was a
distinctive sight. (
杨宪益
译
)
这也正如
H. W.
Fowler
所说的:
“Rhythmic speech
or writing is like waves of the sea, moving onward
with alternating
rise
and
fall,
connected
yet
separate,
like
but
different,
suggestive
of
some
law,
too
complex
for
analysis
or
statement,
controlling the
relations between wave and wave, waves and sea,
phrase and phrase, phrases and
speech.
”
英语里类似汉语的
零句叫做破句(
fragment
)
。
这类句式没有完整的主谓结构,只有词、短语或从句,在英语
里原属语法错误,一般仅用
于对话、标题、告示等特定的语境,或用作修辞手段。与汉语相比,英语的破句不属
于常
规句式。汉语流散型句式与口语有密切的关系。
“现代汉语的书面语同口语基本上是一致
的,它是在口语的
基础上产生和发展起来的。口语是书面语的源泉,对书面语始终起着决
定性的作用。
”
p>
大汽车和小汽车。无轨电车和自行车。鸣笛声和说笑声。大城市的夜晚才最有大城市的活力和
特点。开始有
了稀稀落落的、然而是引人注目的霓虹灯和理发馆门前的旋转花浪。有烫了
的头发和留了的长发。高跟鞋和半高
跟鞋,无袖套头的裙衫。花露水和雪花膏的气味。城
市和女人刚刚开始略略打扮一下自己,已经有人坐不住了。
这很有趣。
< br>(王蒙)
Vans
and
cars.
Buses
and
bikes.
Hooting,
chatting
and
laughing.
A
big
city
reveals
the
most
of
its
vigor
and
character only in the night. There have
appeared some neon lights and barber? s poles,
sparse but striking. Permed hair
and
long hair. High heels and semi-high heels,
sleeveless dresses. Smells of toilet water and
face creams. The city and
women
are
just
be
ginning
to
dress
themselves
up
a
little
bit,
and
some
people
have
already
been
upset.
That?
s
interesting.
总之,英语重形合,造句注重形式接应(
formal coh
esion
)
,要求结构完整,句子以形寓意,以法摄神,因而
严密规范,采用的是焦点句法;汉语重意合,造句注重意念连贯(
semantic
coherence
)
< br>,不求结构齐整,句子以
意役形,以神统法,因而流泻铺排,采用的是散点句法。
王力曾指出,
“就句子的结构而论,西洋语言是法治的,
中国语
言是人治的。
”所谓“法治”
,即句子的形式严格受到语法的制
约,如句子必须有主语和谓语动词,及物动
19
词必须有宾语,这些“不管用得着用不着,总要呆板地求句子形式的一律”
。所谓“人治”
,即句子比较不受形式
的约束,可以因表意的需
要而加以变通,词语的分合伸缩比较灵活,
“用得着就用,用不着就不用”
,只要双方意
思明白,就可以了。汉语的句子可以没有主语(如“下雨了”<
/p>
)
、没有动词(如“我二十岁”
)
,动词该带宾语的却
不一定带宾语
(如
“词典来了,
赶快去买吧”
)
;
英语句子除了必须有主语和谓语动词外,
及物动词一
定要带宾语,
找不到宾语也要用主语的反身代词来作“替身”
,
如“
Insects hide
themselves
in winter
”
,或用“
It
”来代替主语或
宾语;
< br>‘
We are born to slave
it
for our lord
.<
/p>
”
(
W
.
Thackerav
)至于虚词,如介词、连接词,用与不用,英语都
有
较为严格的区分,汉语则灵活得多了。
p>
英语有综合语的特征,受形态的约束,因而“语法是硬的,没有弹性”
;汉语是分析语,不受形态的约束,
因而“语法是软的,富于弹性”
< br>。对此,
O
.
Jesperse
n
曾指出:
“?
analysis means
suppleness
,
and synthesis
means
rigidity
;
in
analytic languages you have the power of
kaleidoscopically arranging and rearranging the
elements that in
synthetic forms are in
rigid
connexion
?”
。
第三章
形合与意合
(
Hypotactic vs
p>
.
Paratactic
)
所谓形合,
指的是句中的词语或分句之间用语言形式手段
(如关联词)
连
接起来,
表达语法意义和逻辑关系。
The
American
Heritage
Dictionary
给形合定义为,
“
The
dependent
or
subordinate
or
relationship
of
clauses
with
connectives, for example, I shall
despair
if
you
don
?
t come.
”英语造句主
要采取形合(
Hypotactic
)
。
所谓意合,
指的是词语或分句之间不
用语言形式手段连接,
句中的语法意义和逻辑关系通过词语或分句的含
< br>义表达。
The World Book Dictionary
给意合定义为:
“
The arranging of
clauses one after the other without connectives
showing the relation between them
.
Example
:
The rain fell
;
the
river flooded; the house washed away
.
p>
”汉语造句主
要采用意合法(
Parata
xis
)
。
一、英语的形合法
英语造
句常用各种形式手段连接词、语、分句或从句,注重显性接应(
overt
cohesion
)
,注重句子形式,注
重结构完整,注重以形显义。英语句中的连接手段和形式(
cohesi
ve ties
)不仅数量大,种类多,而且用得十分频
繁:<
/p>
1
.关系词和连接词。关系词包括关
系代词、关系副词、连接代词和连接副词,如
who
,
whom
,
whose
,
that
,
which
,
what
,
when
p>
,
where
,
w
hy
,
how
等,用来连接主句和定语
从句、主语从句、宾语从句或表语从句。连接
词包括并列连词和从属连词,如
and
,
or
,
but
,
yet
p>
,
so
,
howe
ver
,
as well as
,
p>
(
n
)
eithe
r
?(
n
)
o
r
?及
when
,
while
,
as
,
since
,
until
,
so
?
that
,
unless
,
lest
等,用来连接词、词组、分句或状语从句。英语造句几乎离不开
这些关系
词和连接词,汉语则少用甚至不用这类词,如:
1
)
All
was cleared up some time later
when
news came from a distant place
that
an earthquake was felt
the very
day the little copper ball
fell
.
p>
过了一些时候,从远方传来了消息:在小铜球坠落的当天,确实发生了地震。这一切终于得到
了澄清。
2
)
When
I try to understand what it is
that
prevents so many
Americans from being
as
happy
as
one
might expect
,
it seems to me
that
there are two
causes
,
of which
one goes
much deeper
than the other
.
p>
为什么如此众多的美国人不能如想象中那样幸福呢?我认为原因有二,而两者之间又有深浅之
分。
3
)
It
had been a fine
,
golden
autumn
,
a lovely farewell to
those
who
would lose their
youth
,
and
some of them their
lives
,
before
the leaves turned again in a peacetime
fall
.
那是个天气晴朗、金黄可
爱的秋天,美好的秋色为那些青年们送别。待到战后和平时期,黄叶纷飞的秋天再
度来临
时,当日的青年已经失去了青春,有的丧失了生命。
4
)
It is
flattering to believe
that
they are too profound to be expressed so clearly
that all who
run may
read
,
and
very
naturally it does not occur to such
writers
that
the fault is
with their own minds
which
have not the faculty of precise
reflect
ion
.
(
W
.
S
.
Maugham
:
Lucidity
,
Sim
plicity
,
Euphony
)<
/p>
20
认为自
己的思想深奥,不可能表达得很清楚,让任何人都能理解,这是一种虚荣的念头。这样的作家当然不
会想到,问题还是出在自己脑子缺乏精确思考的能力。
5
)
It was
what
sentimentalists
< br>,
who
deal in very big
words
,
call a yearning after
the ideal
,
and simply means that
women
are
not
satisfied
until
they
have
husbands
and
children
on
whom
they
may
center
affections,
which
are
spent
elsewhere, as it were, in small change.
(
W
.
Tha
ckeray
:
Vanity
Fair
)
一般情感主义者喜欢用大
字眼,称之为对于理想爱情的渴望。换言之,
他们认为女人的情感平时只能零星发
泄,必须有了丈夫和孩子,情感收聚起来有了归宿,自己才能得到满足。
2
.介词
。介词包括简单介词
(
如
with
p>
,
to
,
in
p>
,
of
,
abou
t
,
between
,
through)
、合成介词
(
如
inside
,
onto
,
upon
,
within
,
without
,
throughout)
和成语介词
(
如
according
to
,
along
with
,
apart
from
,
because
of
,
in front
of
,
on behalf
of
,
with regard to)
。根据
G
.
Curme
统计,英语各类介词共约
286
个。介词是英语里最
活跃的词类之一,
是连接词、语或从句的重要手段。
R
.
Bander
指出:
“
A preposition may be defined as a
connecting word showing the
relation of
a noun or substitute for a noun to some other word
the sentence
.
…Prepositions
appear constant
ly in English
speech and
writing
.
…Over ninety percent
of preposition usage involves
these
nine prepositions
:
with
,
to
,
from
,
at
,
in
,
of
,
by
,
for and on
.
”英语造句几乎离不开介词,汉语则常常不用或省略介词:
1)The many colors of a rainbow range
from red on the outside to violet on the
inside
.
彩虹有多种颜色,外圈红,内圈紫。
2)He had a disconcerting habit of
expressing contradictory ideas in rapid
succession
.
他有一种令
人难堪的习惯:一会儿一个看法,自相矛盾,变化无常。
3)This was an intelligently organized
and fervent meeting in a packed Town Hall, with
Mr. Strong in the chair
.
这是一次精心组织起来的会议。市政厅里济济一堂,热情洋溢,主持会议的是斯特朗先生。
p>
4)Power
can
be
transmitted
over
a
great
distance
with
practically
negligible
loss
if
it
is
carried
by
an
electric
current
.
电流可以把动力传送到很远的地方,其消耗几乎可以忽略不计。
5)The present onslaught of vehicles
poses a serious threat to urban life and
pedestrian peace of mind
.
当前,车辆横冲直闯,严重地威胁
着城市生活,路上行人无不提心吊胆。
6)Change
of information
,
if
any
,
concerning the contents
of this section will be found in the appendix at
the end of
this
book
.
本节内容如有更改,均见本书末附录。
7)She said
,
with
perfect truth, that
“it must be
delightful to have a
brother
,
”and easily got the
pity of tende
r-hearted
Amelia
,
for being
alone in the world
,
an orphan
without friends or
kindred
.
(“
Vanity
Fair
”)
她说道,
“
有个哥哥该多好啊,
”
这
话说得入情入理。她没爹没娘,又没有亲友,真是孤苦伶仃。软心肠的阿
米莉亚听了,立
刻觉得她可怜。
3
.其他连接手段,如形态变化形式,包括词缀变化,动词、名词、代词、形容词和副词的形态变化
(
如性、
数、格、时、体、语态、语气、比较
级、人称等
)
及其保持前后一致的关系
(grammatical and notional concord)
,广
泛使用代词以保持前呼后应的关系,
以及使用
“it”
和
“there”
作替补词<
/p>
(expletives)
起连接作用等等。
英语常常综合运
用上述的关系词、连接词、介词以及其他连接手段,把各种成分连接
起来,构筑成长短句子,表达一定的语法关
系和逻辑联系。如:
1)He boasts
that a slave is free the moment his feet touch
British soil and he sells the children of the poor
at six years
of age to work under the
lash in the factories for sixteen hours a
day
.
他吹嘘说,任何奴隶一踏上英国的
土地就获得自由,而他却出卖穷人家六岁的孩子到工厂干活,每天十六小
时,受尽鞭打责
骂。
2)They would have had to live the rest
of their lives under the stigma that they had
recklessly precipitated an action
21
which wrecked the Summit
Conference and conceivably could have launched a
nuclear war.
他们恐怕免不了在有生之年要蒙
受不洁之名,人们会说他们贸然采取行动,使最高级会议遭到搁浅,而且,
可以设想,还
可能挑起了一场核战争。
3)Could any
spectacle
,
for
instance
,
be more grimly
whimsical than that of gunners using science to
sha
tter men?s
bodies while, close a hand, surgeons
use it to restore them?
p>
炮手用科学毁坏了人体,而就在附近,外科医生用科学使其恢复健康,还有什么情景比这更加
荒谬绝伦
?
4)There is nothing
more disappointing to a hostess who has gone to a
lot of trouble or expense than to have her
guest so interested in talking politics
or business with
her husband that he
fails to notice the flavor of
the
coffee, the
lightness of the cake, or
the attractiveness of the house, which may be her
chief interest and
pride
.
(“Western
M
anners
最令女主人失望的是,
她花了许多心神或费用来招
待客人,
可是这位客人只顾津津有味地与她的丈夫谈政治、
谈生
意,却没注意到香喷喷的咖啡,松软的糕点,或房间内讲究的陈设,而这些却可能是她感到兴趣并引以自豪
的主要所在。
5)Eyen in its
blasted condition, with boards and sackings in
most of the windows, with its thick dust and its
bare
room, with its cracked plaster and
its damaged roofs, the hotel had been a new world,
a breadth and dignity
,
full
of
adventure possibilities
.<
/p>
(“Betrayed
Spring
”)
这家旅
馆,尽管被炸坏了,窗户大多钉上了木板,并堆上了沙包,到处是厚厚的尘土,房间空空荡荡,墙上
的石灰也裂了,屋顶也坏了,可总是一个宽阔庄严的新天地,值得去探索。
二、汉语的意合法
汉语造句少用甚至不用形式连接手段,注重隐性连贯
(covert
coherence)
,注重逻辑事理顺序,注重功能、意
义,注重以神统形。汉语的形合手段比英语少得多:没有英语所常用的那些关系代词、关系副词、连接
代词和连
接副词;介词数量少,大约只有
30
< br>个,而且大多是从动词
“
借
”<
/p>
来的。王力指出,汉语“所谓欧化的介词当中,
其实有大部分不是
真的介词,只是靠着西文的反映,就显得它们有介词性罢了。
??
汉语一些介词,如
“
在
”
、
“
向
”
、
“
进
”
、
“
到
”
、
“
沿
”
、<
/p>
“
过
”
、
“
从
”
、
“
为
”
、
“
给
”
、
“
用
”
、
“
拿
”
、
“<
/p>
依
”
等,原均为动词。介词和连词常常可
以省略,甚
至不用,尤其是口语,用了反而显得多余。高名凯指出,
“
汉人平常说话不喜欢用太多没有基本意义的虚词,只
是把
事情或意思排列起来,
让人去了解这两个事情或两个意思之间所生的关系如何。
??不过这并不是说汉人说
话不合逻辑,因为不加虚词,我们也知道这句
话的意思。
”
汉语没有词的形态变化
,没有“
it”
和
“there”
p>
这类替补
词,代词也用得较少,总之,
“<
/p>
尽量省去一切不必要的形式装置
”
,重意
合而不重形合,词语之间的关系常在不言
之中,语法意义和逻辑联系常隐含在字里行间。
汉语的意合法往往采用以下手段:
1
.语序
。汉语的许多主从复句,虽然不用关联词,形式类似并列复句,但分句含义却有主有次。从句若前
置,一般有
“
因为
”
、
“
如果”
、
“虽然”
、
“即使”等含义。据统计,汉语中三
分之二的因果句不到必要时,不用关
联词。先“因”后“果”
,
几乎不用“因为”
,属常态;先“果”后“因”
,大多用“因为
”
,属变态。如:
1.
(
因为
)
她不老实,我不能信任她。<
/p>
Because she is
not honest
,
I
can
?
t t trust
her
.
我不能信任她,因为她不老实。
I
can?t trust her
,
because she
is not honest
.
2)<
/p>
人
(
若
)
不犯我,我
(
则
)<
/p>
不犯人。
We will not
attack unless we are
attacked
.
3)
说是说了,没有结果。
(=
我虽然说了,但是没有
结果。
)
I?ve made
proposals
,
but they proved
futile
.
4)
打肿脸充胖子,吃亏是自己。
If you get beyond your
depth
,
you will
suffer
.
5)
人到事中迷,就怕没人提。
When a man is lost in a
labyrinth
,
what he needs
badly is a hint
.
22
6)
抓住了主要矛盾,一切问题
就可以迎刃而解。
Once the
principal contradiction is
grasped
,
all problems can be
readily solved
.
2
.反复、排比、对偶、对照等。这些句式词句整齐、匀称,往
往不用关联词:
1)
他不来,我不去
。
(=
如果他不来,我就不去。
)
f he won?t come
here
,
I?ll not go
there
.
2)
种瓜得瓜,种豆得豆。
As you sow
,
so
will you reap
.
3)
不怕慢,只怕站。
It
?
s better to
move ahead slowly than just to mark time.
4)
吃苦在前,享乐在后。
Be the first to bear hardships and the
1ast to enjoy comforts
.
5)
聪明一世,糊涂一时。
Smart as a
rule
,
but this time a
foo1
.
6)
不知苦中苦,哪知甜中甜
?
If you have
never tasted the bitterness of
gall
,
how can you know the
sweetness of honey?
7)
东边闪电出日
头,西边闪电必有雨,南边闪电天气热,北边闪电有雷雨。
If it lightens in the
east
,
it will be
sunny
;
if it lightens in the
west
,
it will be
rainy
;
if it lightens in the
south
,
it will
be
sultry
;
if it lightens in the
north
,
it will be
stormy
.
p>
3
.紧缩句。这类意合句式是由复句紧缩而成的。
< br>“
所谓
?
紧
?
,就是紧凑,是取消各分句之间的语音停顿,让
它们紧紧
地挨在一起;所谓
?
缩
?
,就是压缩,是略去原来分句的一些词语,让它们简约一些。
”
这类句式简明紧
凑,分句之间的语法关系和逻辑联
系往往是隐含的:
1)
有饭大家吃。
(=
如果有饭的话,那就让大家吃吧
)
Let everybody share the food if there
is any
.
2)
不到黄河心不死。
Until all is
over, ambition never dies
.
3)
狐狸再狡猾也斗不过好猎手。
However sly a fox may
be
,
it is no march for a good
hunter
.
4)
狼披羊皮还是狼。
A wolf remains a wolf even though it is
in
sheep?s
clothing
.
5)
问遍千家成行家。
Learn from numerous advisers, and you
will become a master
.
6)
上梁不正下梁歪。
If the upper beam is not
straight
,
the lower ones will
go aslant
.
When
those above behave
unworthily
,
those below will
do the same
.
4
.四字格。四字格是汉语里广为运
用的语言形式。吕叔湘指出,
“2+2
的四音节是现代汉语里的
一种重要的
节奏倾向。
……
四音节的优
势特别表现在现代汉语里存在着大量四音节熟语即
?
四字格
p>
?
这一事实上。
”
四字格往
往历经锤炼,言简意赅,常常是意合法的佳作:
1)
不进则退
He who does not advance falls
backward
.
Move
forward, or
you?ll fall
behind
.
2)
酒醉智昏
23
When wine is
in, wit is out
.
3)
物极必反
Once a certain limit is reached, a
change in the opposite direction is
inevitable
.
4)
玩火自焚
Whoever plays with fire will perish by
fire
.
5)
欲盖弥彰
The more one tries to
hide
,
the more one is
exposed
.
6)
远交近攻
Befriend those far away while attacking
those nearby
.
王力指
出,
“
西洋语的结构好象连环,虽则环与环都联络起来,毕竟有
联络的痕迹;中国语的结构好象无缝
天衣,只是一块一块的硬凑,凑起来还不让它有痕迹
。西洋语法是硬的,没有弹性的;中国语法是软的,富于弹
性的。惟其是硬的,所以西洋
语法有许多呆板的要求,如每一个
clause
里必须有一个主
语
;
惟其是软的,所以中
国语法只以
达意为主,如初系的目的位可兼次系的主语,又如相关的两件事可以硬凑在一起,不用任何的
connective word
.
”
E
.
Nida
也认为,英汉在语言学上最重要的一个区别就是
形合和意合的不同。
英语注重形合,注重结构、形式,
常常借助各种连接手段,因而比较严谨
(preciseness)
;汉语注重意合,注
重功能、意义,常常不用或少用连接手段,因而比较简洁
(conciseness)
。英译汉时,往往要先分析句子的结构、
形式,才能确定句子的功能、意义;汉译英时,往往要先分析句子的功能、意义,才能确
定句子的结构、形式。
如:
1)A
body in motion remains in motion at a constant
speed in a straight line unless acted upon by an
external force
.
没有外力作用,运动的物体就连续作匀速直线运动。
2)There is no more
difference
,
but there is just
the same kind of difference, between the mental
operations of a man
of science and
those of an ordinary person as there is between
the operations and methods of a baker or of a
butcher who
weights out his goods in
common scales and the operations of a chemist who
performs a difficult and complex analysis
by means of his balance and finely
graduated weights
.
(T
< br>.
H
.
Huxley)
科学家的思维活动和普通人的思维活动之间存在着差别,
这种差别就跟
一个面包师或者卖肉者和一个化验师
在操作方法上的差别一样。前者用普通的秤称东西的
重量,而后者则用天平和精密砝码进行艰难复杂的分析。其
差别不过如此而已。
3)The growth of class
consciousness among the workers was inhibited by
continued high levels of employment and
rising
earnings
for
almost
15
years,
combines
with
the
propaganda
of
views
in
the
1abor
movement
reflecting
the
influence of Keynesian theories about
the ability of capitalism to solve permanently the
problem of
“boom and bust”
through a
“managed
economy”
of built-in
stabilizers
.
将近十五
年来,就业率一直保持高水平,工资收入不断增长。凯恩斯有一套理论,认为资本主义制度有能力
通过名曰
“
内在稳定因素
”<
/p>
的
“
国家调节经济
”
永远解决繁荣与危机交替出现的问题。而劳工运动则宣传反映凯恩斯
理论影响的观点。这种种因素结合在一起,就使
工人阶级觉悟的提高受到阻碍。
4)
从其交友知其为人。
Tell me whom you associate with and
I?ll te
ll you who you are.
5)
我过去所受的那些委屈和刺激,比起他来,也只是小巫见大
巫,算不得什么。
(
李六如:
《六十年
的变迁》
)
Wha
t little
pain and adversity I?ve experienced so far are
simply nothing compared
to
w
hat he?s gone
through
.
6)
我们约他做攻守同盟,
本想彼此提携,
有福同享,<
/p>
有祸同当,
不料他倒先来沾我们的光了。
(
茅盾:
《子夜》
)
When we got him to go in with us it was
on the understanding that we sink or swim
together, but now it turns out
that he
was only out to sponge on us!
< br>7)
再试纺,顶多忙一阵子,过了几天,还不是外甥打灯笼
——
找舅
(
照旧
)
。
(
周而复:
< br>《上海的早晨》
)
And if
we?re now going to have a check
spinning it
,
it
?
ll
only mean
that we?
ll be busier than ever for a
spell and
24
then after a few days things will be
back to what they were
before
.
三、形合、意合与文体
英语和
汉语都有形合句和意合句。一般地说,英语形合句多,汉语意合句多,但其多少与文体密切相关。书
面语没有口语的辅助语言手段,如表情、手势、语调等,又要表达复杂的逻辑关系,必须常常借助关联
词语和其
他形式手段,因而形合句比口语多。现代汉语受西方语言的影响,形合句比古代
汉语多。
O
.
Jespersen
p>
对古汉语
曾评论说:
“Undoubted
ly Chinese of t
he old style carries
with it an impressive dignity through the
immediate succession
of
nothing
but
momentous
notions
;
it
acquires
a
simple
greatness
because
it
throws
away
all
unnecessary
accessory
elements and
thus
,
as it
were
,
takes night to pure
thinking
.
”
从古代汉语流传下来的大量成语、谚语,大多匀称对
偶,节奏铿锵,琅琅上口
,言筒意赅,至今仍为汉语意合句的重要组成部分。现代庄重文体、科技文体和论述文
体
较多采用形合句,以表达清晰的逻辑关系和复杂的思想内容。例如严复以下几段有关翻译的著名论述,用汉代
p>
以前的雅语,常以单句代复句,以平列代主从,多取意合法:
p>
译事三难信达雅。求其信已大难矣。顾信矣不达。虽译犹不译也。则达尚焉。
……
易曰修辞立诚。
< br>子曰辞达而已。
又曰言之无文。
行之不远。
三者乃文章正轨。
亦即为译事楷模。
故信达而外。<
/p>
求其尔雅。此不仅期以行远已耳。实则精理微言。用汉以前字法句法。则为达易。用近世利
俗文字。则求达难。
往往抑义就词。毫厘千里。审择于斯二者之间。夫固有所不得已也。
岂钓奇哉。
……
新理踵出。
名目纷繁。
索之中文。
渺不可得。
即有牵合。
终嫌参差。
译者遇此。
< br>独有自具衡量。
即义定名。
……
一名之立。旬月踟蹰。
……(
严复:
《
天演论
·
译例言》
)
这几段论述若译成现代汉语和现代英语,则多取形合法:
p>
翻译工作有三大困难:忠实、通顺、典雅。要做到忠实于原文已经很不容易,但如果只注意忠
实于原文而忽
略了译文的通顺,那么,即使译了,也等于没译,可见译文通顺也是需要的
。
……
《易经》指出:
< br>“
修辞要注重表达准确。
”
孔子
也说过:
“
做文章,不过是把意思表达得明畅罢了。
”
他又说:
“
言语缺乏文
采,就不能扩大影响。
”
可见,这三方面都是写作所必须遵循的
原则,也是翻译的标准。因此,除了
表达准确、
通顺之外,
p>
我还力求文字古雅,
这不仅仅是为了扩大影响而已。
其实,
那些精辟的道理和微妙的语言,
用汉代以前的词
法和句法去翻译,倒还易于表达,而用现代通俗文字去翻译。反而不容易表达得明畅,而且往往
< br>为了迁就词句而损害原意,使得译文差之毫厘,谬以千里。对以上两种情况,经过反复考虑,我选择了前者 。这
乃是出于不得已,而非追求文字的新奇啊
!……
新的学说接二连三地出现,
新的名称
也随之多了起来。
这些新名称,
从汉语里无法找到,
即使勉强牵连凑合,
毕竟嫌有出入。译者遇到这种情况,只有运用自己的判
断力,按照新名称的含义去确定译名。
……
有时为了确定
一个译名,往往要花上十天或个把月的时间,反复推敲。
……
Translation has to do three
difficult things
:
to be faith
ful
,
expressive
,
p>
and elegant
.
It is
difficult enough to be faithful
to the
original
,
and yet if a
translation is not
expressive
.
it is tantamount
to having no
translation
.
Hence
expressiveness
should be required
too
.
…
The
Book of Change says that the first requisite of
rhetoric is
truthfulness
.
Confucius says
that expressiveness is all
that matters
in language
.
He adds that if
one?s1anguage lacks grace
.
it
won?t go far
.
These three qua
lities
,
then
,
are the
criterion of good writing
and
,
I
believe
,
of good translation
too
.
Hence besides
faithfulness and
expressiveness
.
I also
aim at elegance
.
I
strive for elegance not just to make my
translations travel far
,
but
to express the original writer?s ideas
better
,
for I find
that subtle thoughts are better expressed in the
vocabulary and syntax of
pre
—
Han prose than those of
the vulgar writings of
today
.
Using the latter often
leads to distortion of meaning
,
< br>which
,
however
slight
,
results in vast
misunderstanding
.
Weigh
ing
the
pros
and
cons
,
I
opted
for
the
former
,
as
a
matter
of
necessity
,
not
trying
to
be
different
.
…
New ideas come one after
another
,
with a multiplicity
of new names
.
No equivalents
can be found for them in
Chinese
.
Straining
for resemblances
,
one gets
only contrarieties
.
The
translator is obliged to use his own
discretion
,
25
doing his best to find a term suited to
the sense
.
…A single term
often took weeks and months of deliberation
.
…(
王佐
良译
)
意合法在汉语里属
“
常态
”
,在英语里属
“
变态
”
。这类
p>
“
变态
”
常见于一
些简练的谚语、表达复合句内容的简单
句,以及表达状语从句意义的定语从句,如:
p>
1)Man
proposes
,
God
disposes
.
谋事在人,成事在天。
2)The best shortcut would still take
five hours
.
(
p>
即使
)
抄近路也要五小时。
3)A
successful
old
age
is
easiest
for
those
who
have
strong
impersonal
interests
involving
appropriate
activities
.
(Bertrand
Russell)
如果老年人对
个人以外的事情怀有强烈的兴趣,并参加适当的活动,他们的晚年是最容易过得好的。
4)
不打不相识。
Out of blows friendship
grows
.
No
discord
,
no
concord
.
5)
敌进我退,敌驻我扰,敌疲我打,敌退我追。
The
enemy advances
,
we
retreat
;
the enemy
camps
,
we
harass
;
the enemy
tires
,
we
attack
;
the enemy
retreats
,
we
pursue
.
第四章:繁复与简短
(Complex
Vs
.
Simplex)
从属结构
(subordination)
是现
代英语最重要的特点之一。
F
.
Cre
ws
认为,
“subordination
,
the placing of certain
elements in modifying
roles
,
is a fundamental
principle of
writing
.
”
从句和短语可以充当句子的主要成分和从属成
分。
从句
可以层层环扣,
短语往往不短,
书面语句子常常显得又繁又长<
/p>
(1ong-winded)
,
有的句子
可长达
100
至
200
个单词,甚至长至整个大段。现代英语虽较不常用特长的句子,但包孕式的复合句
(complex
sentences
with
embedded clauses)
仍很常见,因而句子仍然
具有一定的长度。据统计,专业作者写的句子平均长度为
20
个
词,受
过教育的人写的句子平均长度为
25
个词。总的看来,英语句子比汉语句子长得多。
汉语常用散句、松句、紧缩句、省略句、流水句或并列形式的
复句
(composite sentences)
,以中短句
居多,最
佳长度为
7
至
12
字。书面语虽也用长句,字数较多,结构较复杂,但常用标点把句子切开,
与英语相比,还属
短句。没有标点符号的一气呵成的类似英语的那种长句在汉语里是不正
常的
(
例如本句
)
。汉语句子多数显得结构
简化,无拖沓、盘错之感,
“
p>
甚至有些西洋人看见了中国作品的译文,觉得简短可爱。
”
英语书面语句子显得长而复杂,原因是多方面的。英语词语之间的语法
关系,除了通过安排词序来表达外,
还常常采用各种各样表示关系和连接的手段,如介词
(
词组
)
、连
词、关系代词、关系副词、连接代词、连接副词、
非谓语动词
(
词组
)
、词的形态变化
(
如词尾变化、格的变化
)
等
等。英语用来连接词、语的这些手段,比起汉语来,
显得非常丰富而灵活。另一方面,能
充当英语句子成分的,有长短几乎不加限制的短语和从句,从句中还可以有
从句
(dovetail several dependent clauses into
each other)
,再加上各种并列成分,附加成分
(<
/p>
如同位语、插入语、独立
成分
)
,尤其是形形色色的修饰成分,这样一来,这些各式各样的长短成分,通过丰富而灵活的连接手段
,可以
接成枝叶横生的
“
参天大树
p>
”
。英语句子呈句首封闭、句尾开放。定语修饰语可以后置,又有关
系词与被修饰语连
接,句子可以不断向句尾扩展、延伸。英语还常用先行代词
“it”
及其他预指性代词,把真正的主语或宾语移到后
< br>面,并根据需要加以不断扩充,形成句子的末端重量
(end-
weight)
。英语以主谓核心协调
(S-V concor
d)
控制全句结
构,有词的形态变化约束,有连接手段连接词语
和从句,有代词使词语前呼后应,这些因素都可以使冗长的句子
不致流散。
R
.
Eastman
指出,
“The English sentence is extremely
plastic
.
It can be enlarged
p>
,
combined
,
adjusted with
almost any degree 0f
fineness to accommodate a writer? thought
.
”
因此,英语句子,尤其是书面语的句子,常常是环
p>
扣相嵌,盘根错节,句中有句。换言之,英语造句主要采用“楼房建筑法”
< br>(architecture
style)
,句子一般有完整
26
的结构,
许多有关的成分通过各
种表示关系和连接的手段组成关系词结集
(conjunctive-nexus)
p>
,
直接或间接地粘附
在这个句子结构的里外
、前后、左右或中间,整个句子成了庞大复杂的
“
建筑物
”
。
以下长句引自美国官方的一篇文章
,
原用以讽刺官场中流行的冗长句式。
此句是作者为嘲弄不良文
风而故意
仿造的
parody
,虽不能
代表英语的常规句式,但也可以看出英语句子的
“
繁复
”
能够达到何种程度:
The present movement toward
simplification of language and directness of
statement in government writing and the
elimination of jargon and unnecessary
wordiness as well as the use of
short
,
direct statements
instead of long sentences
which are
difficult to understand because the reader is apt
to get lost before he
arrives
,
if he ever
does
,
at the meaning
intended by the
writer
,
is a valuable attempt
to achieve economy and
intelligibility
,
for many
pamphlets
.
instruction
sheets
,
ordinary
memoranda and assorted missives circulated through
the War Department fail of their primary purpose
through befogging their contents by use
of pseudo-official phraseology which only the
initiated can hope to understand
and of
which even they cannot be certain without
reference either to the key works needed for
translating them or to their
own
garbled and confused memories of
dealing
,
usually without much
success and always after a long period of time and
travail
,
with
similar kinds of wording in similar situations
,
so
,
though
don? t be too hopeful
,
for
someone with unusual
gifts and energy
in applying them will manage triumphantly to
misunderstand you no matter what you say or how
you
say it
,
try
saying what you have to say as
simply and as briefly as you
can
,
and then after
you've·
66
。
said
it
。
stop saying
it
and don?t say it any more
.
p>
相比之下,汉语没有形态变化,少用甚至不用关联词,词语之间的语法关系主要是通过安排词
序和使用助词
来表达的,词的先后次序一般是按照时间顺序和逻辑关系来排列的。换言之
,汉语造句主要采用
“
流水记事
法
p>
”(chronicle style)
,常用分句或流水句来逐层
叙述思维的各个过程
(streamline the thoughts)
。这些特点,大大限制
了汉语单句的长度。此外,汉语定语修饰语一般前置
,一个单词所能承受的修饰词语是很有限的。一个名词前面
不可
“
的
”“
的
”
(
定语
)
不已,一个动词前后也不可<
/p>
“
地
”
地
”(
状语
)
或“得”
“得”
(
补语
)
不已。一个单词若有两个以上
稍长的修饰语,就显得
“
负荷过重
”
了。汉语
句子呈句首开放、句尾收缩,句子不能象英语那样层层环扣、向后不
断扩展延伸。汉语的
复句与英语的复合句所指的范围也不同。汉语复句指的是
“
有两
套以上彼此不作句子成分的
结构中心
(
或单句形式
)”
。联合复句表示并列、连贯、递进、选择等关系
,大体相当于英语的并列句;偏正复句表
示因果、假设、条件、让步、相承、目的、时间
、比较等关系,大体相当于英语带状语从句的复合句。因此,严
格说来,汉语没有象英语
那样的主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句、定语从句、同位语从句等语法概念。虽然汉语
也
有句子结构作整个句子的成分
(
如主语、表语、宾语、定语、状
语、补语
)
,其作用相当于英语的从句,但这些
句子结构一般都是寥寥数语的小句或主谓词组,
整个句子还可仍然是单句。
p>
汉语的许多复句由于省略关联词和标
点符号,可压缩成紧缩句。这种
句式结构紧凑,言简意赅,最能体现汉语的特色。此外,汉语还常用松散句,多
用省略句
、无主句,少用虚词、附加成分或联合成分,句子松散、舒缓、轻松、活泼,显得简短,无冗长之感。
王力指出,
“
中国人作文虽讲究炼句,然其所谓炼
句只是着重在造成一个典雅的句子,并非要扩充句子的组织。
恰恰相反,
中国人喜欢用四个字的短句子,
以为这样可以使文章道劲。
由此看来,
西洋人做文章把语言化零为整,
中国人做文章几
乎可以说是化整为零。
”
根据上述的
英汉特点,英译汉时常常要破句重组,化繁为简,如:
1)In the doorway lay at least twelve
umbrellas of all sizes and
colors
.
门口放着一堆雨伞,
少说也有十二把,五颜六色,大小不一。
(
比较:门口放着至少
有十二把五颜六色、大
小不一的雨伞。
)
2)There are many wonderful stories to
tell about the places I visited and the people I
met
.
我访问了一些地方,遇到了
不少人。要谈起来,奇妙的事儿可多着哩。
(
比较:关于我所访
问的一些地方和
遇见的不少人有许多奇妙的故事可以讲。
)
3)Can you answer a question which I
want to ask and which is puzzling me?
我
有一个问题弄不懂,想请教你,你能回答吗
?(
比较:你能回答
一个使我弄不懂而又想问你的问题吗
?)
4)If the
man who was seen to take an umbrella from the City
Church last Sunday evening does not wish to get
into
trouble
,
he
will return the umbrella to
No
.
10 Broad
Street
.
He is well
known
.
27
上星期日傍晚。有人曾见某君在市教堂取走雨伞一把。<
/p>
取伞者如不愿卷入纠纷,
还是将伞送至布劳德街十号
为妙。此君为谁,尽人皆知。
5)
Gentlemen
,
I am ashamed to
see men embarked on so great and g1orious an
undertaking
,
as that of
robbing the
public, so foolishly and
weakly dissenting among
themselves
.
(Fielding
:
Jonathan Wild)
诸位先生,有些人正在干着一番光荣而伟大的事业,那
就是掠夺大众。这时候,他们居然这么愚蠢,这么虚
弱,在自己人中间发生内讧。对于这
些,我真觉得丢脸。
英语注
重形合,句子结构可以借助各种连接手段加以扩展和组合,形成纷繁复杂的长句;汉语注重意合,少
用甚至不用连接词语,因而语段结构流散,但语意层次分明。英语长句的汉译常常要采用分解、拆散和
重组的变
通手段进行灵活处理:
1)Many
man
—
made
substances
are
replacing
certain
natural
materials
because
either
the
quantity
of
the
natural
product can not meet our
ever
—
increasing requirement<
/p>
,
or
,
mor
e often
,
because the physical
properties of the synthetic
substance,
which is the common name for
man
—
made
materials
,
have been
chosen
,
and even
emphasized
,
so that
it would be of the greatest use in the
fields in which it is to be
applied
.
人造材
料通称为合成材料。
许多人造材料正在代替某些天然材料。
这或
者是由于天然物产的数量不能满足日
益增长的需要。或者往往是由于人们选择了合成材料
的一些物理性质并加以突出而造成的。因此,合成材料在拟
用的领域中将具有极大的用途
。
2)Closely linked with this
commitment is the new last paragraph of the
preamble which reaffirms that principle of
the Charter of the United Nations in
accordance with which Member States must refrain
from
the use of force or the
threat
of
force
against
the
territorial
integrity
or
political
independence
of
any
State
and
which
declares
that
the
establishment and the
maintenance of international peace and
security are
to be promoted with the
least diversion for
armaments of the
world?s human and ec
onomic
resources·
与这一承诺密切相连的是序言中新
增加的最后一段。
它重申联合国宪章的一条原则,
即会员国不得
使用武力
或武力威胁来侵犯任何国家的领土完整或政治独立,
并
且声明要尽量减少把世界人力及经济资源用于军备,
以促
进国际
和平与安全的建立与维护。
3)But the
mingled reality and mystery of the whole
show
,
the influence upon me
of the poetry
,
the
lights
,
the
music
,
the
company
,
the smooth
stupendous changes of glittering and brilliant
scenery
,
were so
dazzling
,
and opened
up such illimitable regions of
delight
,
that when I came
out
into
the
rainy
street
,
at
twelv
e o?clock at
night
,
I felt
as
if
I
had
come
from
the
clouds
,
where
I
had
been
leading
a
romantic
life
for
ages
,
to
a
bawling
,
splashing
,
<
/p>
link
—
lighted
,
umbrella-
struggling
,
hackney-coach-
jostling
,
pattern-clinking
,
muddy
,
mi
serable
world
.
(Charles
Dickens
:
David
Copperfield)
整个演出既具有现实感又富有神
秘色彩。诗歌、灯光、音乐、演员,光耀夺目、变幻神奇的舞台背景,感染
了我。整个场
面是这样地令人眼花缭乱、心旷神怡。当我在午夜时分走出戏院来到雨淋淋的街道上时,我感到自
己刚才仿佛是在仙境中传奇般地生活了好久,
而现在则已脱离了这个仙境来到了
另外一个世界。
这里是一片叫喊
声,一阵阵飞溅开来的泥浆,一
盏盏路灯,一把把挤来挤去的雨伞,一辆辆争先恐后的马车,一串串踢踢嗒嗒的
木鞋声,
一片泥泞,一片悲惨。
有些长
句,结构十分复杂,译成汉语时,不仅要先对句子进行解剖,而且要根据意思加以改写,这样才比较
容易下笔,如:
原文:
Oh
,
Simplicio
,
if I should succeed in
convincing you of the artfulness--though it is no
great artistry--of this
author, I
should rouse you to wonder--and also to
indignation--when you discovered how he, covering
his cunning with
the veil of your
naivete and that of other mere
philosophers
,
tries to
insinuate himself into your good graces by
gratifying
your ear and puffing up your
ambition
,
pretending to have
convicted and silenced these trifling astronomers
who wanted
to
assail
the
ineradicable
inalterability
of
the
Peripatetic
heavens
,
and
what
is
more,
to
have
struck
them
dumb
and
28
overpowered
them with their own weapons
.
改写:
O
h
,
Simplicio
,
I wish I could convince you of the artfulness--though it is no great artistry--of this author
.
He,
covering his cunning with the veil of
your naivete and that of other mere
philosophers
,
tries to
insinuate himself into your
graces
.
He regards
these astronomers who wanted to assail the
ineradicability and inalterability of the
Peripatetic heavens
as trifling
only
,
and pretends to have
convicted and silenced them, and what is
more
.
to have struck them
dumb and
overpowers them
with their own
weapons
.
In this way he
gratifies
your ear and puffs up
your
ambition
.
When you
discovered how he did
this
,
I should rouse you to
wonder--and also to indignation
.
(
周煦良改写
)
?
p>
汉译:啊,辛普利邱,但愿我能够说服你,使你看出这位作者的伎俩
——
虽则并不是怎样高明的伎俩。他利
用你的天真和其他不懂天
文学的哲学家的天真,为自己打掩护,企图博取你们的欢心。他把那些想要攻击逍遥学
派
天界的稳固性和不可动摇性的天文学家,说成是毫不足道的,并自命已经驳倒他们,使他们无辞以答;不但如
p>
此,他还自命用他们自己的武器驳得他们哑口无言,无力还击。他就是用这种伎俩使你觉得娓
娓动听,并鼓起你
的无名勇气,如果你一旦发现他是怎样做到这样的,我当会引起你的惶
惑
——
并且使你感到愤概。
(
周煦良译
)
汉语的
分句或流水句,译成英语时,常常要化简为繁,组合成复合句或长句,如:
p>
1)
老栓正在专心走路,忽然吃了一惊,远远地看见一条丁字街,明
明白白横着。他便退了几步,寻找一家关
着门的铺子,蹩进檐下,靠门立住了。
(
鲁迅:
《药》
)
Absorbed in his
walking
,
Old Shuan was
startled when he saw the cross road lying
distinctly ahead of him
.
He
walked back a few steps to stand under
the eaves of a shop in front of its closed
door
.
2)<
/p>
因为距离远,又缺乏交通工具,农村社会是与外界隔绝的。这种隔绝状态,由于通讯工具不
足,就变得更
加严重了。
The
isolation
of
the
rural
world
because
of
distance
and
the
1ack
of
transport
facilities
is
compounded
by
the
paucity of the information
media
.
3)<
/p>
原来悟空手疾眼快,
正在那混乱之时,
他
拔下一根毫毛,
叫声
“
变
!
”
就变做他的本相。
(
吴承恩:
《西游记》
)
As Sun Wukong was deft of hand and
quick of eye
,
he plucked one
of the hairs from his body in the midst of the
fray and shouted
“Change!”
It changed into
his own double
.
4)
他这
时已是将近六旬的人,一表人才,高个儿,眉目清秀,头发又多又黑,略带花白,恰好衬出他那堂堂
的仪表。
He was at this
time in his late fifties
,
a
tall
,
elegant man with good
features and thick dark hair only sufficiently
graying to add to the distinction of
his appearance
.
5
)
我们不知不觉地朝公园走去。公园就在人行桥那边,桥下很深的地方,汹涌的河水滚滚
流过。
Somehow our path took us
toward the park
。
across the
footbridge high above the rolling waters of the
river
.
6)
< br>倾刻之间,滚滚的浊水象堵墙一般压了下来,一古脑儿连人带车都给冲走了。这情景,直到现在还印在我< /p>
的脑海里。
The image of
a sudden wall of dark water carrying the man and
his car away in an instant is still imprinted on
my
mind
.
英汉修辞学都主张长短句交替、单复句相间。过分使用长句或
短句都会产生单调感
(monotony)
.
< br>H
.
J
.
Tichy
认为,
“V
ariety
in sentence length is much more important than
average length
.
”
他
认为句子的长短取决于作者和读者
的年龄、教育程度、阅读经验、写作的题材、文体、强
调及句式变换的需要等因素。
英汉句式的繁与简,也是相对而
言的。现代英语与
17
世纪的英语相比,已渐渐简化,但冗长的
句式仍为一
种通病。如今许多英美写作教科书都劝导作者忌用长而繁的句式,多用简而明
的“
plain English”
.
E
.
Gowers
指
< br>出:
“The most prevalent disease in
present
-day writing is a tendency to
say what one has to say in as complicated a way
as
possible
.
Instead of being
simple
,
terse and
direct
,
it is
stilted
,
long-winded and
circumlocutory
;
instead of
choosing
the simple word it prefers the
unusual
;
instead of the plain
phrase the cliche
.从
Gowers
所指出的这种英语通病看来,
29
译者仍要常常面临这些复杂而冗长的句子。现代汉语受西方语言的影响,句子也比清代以前的长
了,虽然如此,
仍比不上英语。王力指出:
“
< br>固然,现代的思想已经不是四字短句所能表达的了;但是我们希望顺其自然,适可
而止。如果把句子勉强拉长到和中国的语言结构不能相容的地步,就未免太过了。
”
p>
繁或简,与文体很有关系,英汉皆然。一般说来,长句严密、
周详、精确、细致,宜于阐述复杂的观点,抒
发细腻的感情,描述具体的细节,常见于书
面语,尤其是政论文、科技论文、公文或小说里的叙述与描写。短句
简洁、明快、活泼、
有力,宜于叙述事物,说明情况,抒发感情,对比强调,常见于口语,尤其是日常会话、辩
论、
演讲、
台词、
杂文、
广播稿、
儿童文学或小说里的人物对话。
英汉互译
时应注意繁简句式与文体的这种关系。
第五章
物称与人称
(Impersonal
vs
.
Personal)
p>
英语较常用物称表达法,
即不用人称来叙述,
而让事物以客观的口气呈现出来,
有些英语写作论著称之为
“
the
writer and the reader are out of
the picture
,
hiding
themselves behind impersonal language”
.
G
.
Leech
和
J
.
Svartvik
在
《英语交际语法》
一书中指出:
“Formal written language often goes with an
impersonal style
:
i
.
e
.
one in which
the
speaker does not refer directly to
himself or his readers
,
but
avoids the pronouns
I
,
you
,
we
.
Some of the common
features of impersonal language are
passives
,
sentences beginning
with introductory
it
,
and abstract nouns
.
”该书以图
书馆的一则通告为例:
< br>
It has been noted with concern that
the stock of books in the library has been
declining
alarmingly
.
Students are
asked to remind themselves of the rules
for the borrowing and return of
books
,
and to bear in mind
the needs of other
students
.
Penalties for overdue books will in the
future be strictly enforced
.
近来已注意到本馆存书惊人地减少,此事令人关切。现要求学生不要忘记借书还书规则,
并考虑其他学生的
需要。今后凡借书逾期不还者,必将严格按章
处罚。
英语写作教科书常常劝告作者不要
滥用这种非人称表达法,认为这会使文章缺乏
“personal
reference
and
human touch”
,失去
“p
eople
-to-
people
relationship”
,显得
“abstract
and official”
,甚至
.
上述一例
若多用人称表达,则可显得不那么正式:
The number of books in the library has
been going down
.
Please make
sure you know the rules for
borrowing
,
and
don't forget that the library is for
everyone's convenience
.
So
from now on
,
we're going to
enforce the rules
strictly
.
You
have
been warned!
虽然如此,
非人称表达法仍是英语常见的一种文风,
尤其常见于书面语,
如公文、
新闻、
科技论著以及散文、
小
说等文学作品。这种表达法往往使叙述显得客观、公正,结构趋于严密、紧凑,语气较为委婉、间接。
汉语则较注重主体
思维,这种思维模式以
“
万物皆备于我
”
作主导,往往从自我出发来叙述客观事物,或倾向于
描述人及
其行为或状态,因而常用人称。当人称可以不言自喻时,又常常隐含人称或省略人称。汉语重人称,英
语重物称,这一特点主要表现在如何使用主语和动词这两方面。
一、英语常用非人称主语,汉语常用人称主语
英语可用人称主语表达,也常用非
人称主语表达。用非人称主语表达时,往往注重
“
什么事发生在
什么人身
上
”
,而汉语则较常用人称主
语表达,往往注重“什么人怎么样了”
,如:
1)What has happened to you?
你出了什么事啦
?
2)An idea suddenly struck
me
.
我突然想到了一个主意。
3)A
strange peace came over her when she was
alone
.
她独处时便感到一种特殊的安宁。
30
4)Not a sound
reached our ears
.
(A
.
S
.
Hornby)
我们没有听到任何声音。
5)A
great elation overcame them
.
他们欣喜若狂。
6)Alarm
began to take entire possession of
him(W
.
Thackeray)
他开始变得惊恐万状。
英语用非人称作主语的句子大体可以分为以下两大类:
1
.用抽
象名词或无生命的事物名称作主语,同时又使用本来表示人的动作或行为的动词作其谓语,因而这种
句式往往带有拟人化
(personification)
< br>修辞色彩,语气含蓄,令人回味,反映了英美民族的幽默感。
O
< br>.
Jespersen
指出,
“
There can be no doubt that the poetic tendency to
personify lifeless things or abstract
n
otions, for instance to
apostrophize Death as if it were a
living being
,
and the related
representation in plastic art of such
notions
,
are largely
due to the influence of languages with
sex-gender
,
chiefly
,
of course
,
Latin
.
??
汉语虽然也有用拟人法来描述抽
象的
概念或无生命的事物,如
“
什么风
把你吹来的
?”
,
“
< br>爱情把我们的心连在一起
”
,
“
高山低头,河水让路
”
,但这种表
p>
达法较常见于形象的比喻或轻松的文体,无论从使用的语境或出现的频率来看,都远远不及英
语。汉人较缺乏幽
默感,注重的是“什么人做什么事”
,往往用
人或比较确定的事物作主语。如:
1)From the
mo
ment we stepped into the People?s
Republic
of China, care and kindness
surrounded us on every side.
(Hewlett and Nowell
Johnson
:
To China at
Ninety
)
一踏上中华人民共和国国土,我们就随时随地受到关怀与照顾。
2)
Excitement
deprived me of all power of
utterance
.
我兴奋得什么话也说不出来。
3)
The thick
carpet
killed the sound of my footsteps
.
(Joseph
:
< br>English
3200)
我走在厚厚的地毯上,一点脚步声也没有。
4)The
happiness
——
the
superior
advantages
of
the
young
women
round
about
her,
gave
Rebecca
inexpressible
pangs of envy<
/p>
.
(W
.
Tha
ckeray
:
Vanity Fair)
< br>丽贝卡看见她周围的小姐那么福气,享受种种优越的权利,却有说不出的眼红。
5)The forty years
,
1840
—
80
,
< br>brought almost ten million migrants to America< /p>
.
(P
.
Bro
mhead
:
Life in Modern
America)
从
184
0
至
1880
这四十年中,近一千万移
民移居美国。
6)The little chap?s
good—
natured honest face won his way
for him
.
这小伙子长相老实,看上去脾气也好,到处有人缘。
7)My good fortune has sent you to
me
,
and we will never part
.
(H
.
Ander
sen
:
The Little Mermaid)
我很幸运,能够得到你,让我们永不分离吧。
8)Friday started with a morning visit
to the modern campus of the
22
,
000-student University of
Michigan in nearby
Ann
Arbor
,
where
the
Chinese
table
tennis
team
joined
students
in
the
cafeteria
Iine
for
lunch
and
later
played
an
exhibition
match
.
(“China
U
p>
.
S
.
Table
Tennis”)
星期五那天,
p>
中国乒乓球队一早就到安亚伯附近去参观拥有两万两千名学生的密执安大学现代化校园。
p>
他们
和该校学生在校内自助餐厅排队取午餐,然后举行了一场表演赛
。
英语这类非人称主语句采用“无灵主语”
(inanimate
subject)
,表示抽象概念、心理感觉、事物名称或时间地
点等,
但谓语却常常使用
“有灵动词”
(animate verb)
,
表示人或社会团体的动作和
行为,
如
see
,
find
,
bring
,
give
,
escape
,
surround
,
kill
p>
,
deprive
,
seize
,
send
,
know
,
tell
,<
/p>
permit
,
invite
,
take
,
drive
,
prevent…f
rom
等。英语
用
“
无灵主语
”
与
“
有灵动
词
”
搭配的句式比汉语多,使用因为的场合也比汉语广。汉语的
“有灵动词”一般只能与
人称搭配,根据汉人的思维习惯,人或社会团体才有这类有意识
、有意志的行为,非人类的、无生命的事物一般
31
只能有一些无意识、无意志的状态、运动或变化。汉语“无灵主语”与“有灵动词”搭配通常用
作一种修辞手段
——
拟人化:
北京目睹过许多伟大的历史事件。
Beijing has witnessed many great
historical events
.
星光很早以前就踏上了旅程。
The light from the stars started on its
journey long long ago.
在汉英转
换中,用“物称”代替“人称”常常是一种有效的手段,
1)
一看到那棵大树,我便想起了童年的情景。
The
sight of the big tree always reminds me of my chil
d
—
hood
.
2)
近来忙于其他事务,未能早些复信,深感抱歉。
I am very sorry that the
pressure of other occupations has prevented me
from sending an earlier reply to your
1etter
.
3)
恕我孤陋寡闻,对此关系一无所知。
My
total ignorance of the connection must plead my
apology.
4)
凭良心讲,你待我礼貌有加,我却受之
有愧。
My conscience told me
that deserved no extraordinary told me that I
deserved no extraordinary
politeness
.
5)
五四运动以后,开始了
“
新红学
”
时代,代表人物有胡适、俞平伯等这样一些学者。
The May Fourth Movement of 1919 saw the
beginning of the
“New Red
o1o
gy”
,
represented
by scholars such as
Hushi and Yu
Pingbai
.
6)
小梅心地善良,性情温和,对她朋友这种没有心肝的行为,实在看不顺眼。
Xiaomei?s kindly and gentle nature
could
not but revolt at her
friend?s call
ous
behavior
.
2
p>
.用非人称代词
“it”
作主语。代词
p>
“it”
除了用来代替除人以外的生物或事物之外,还广泛用作填补
词
(expletive)
,如:
1)<
/p>
用作先行词
(preparatory
“it”)
,代替真正的主语或宾语
(“to
represent a whole group of words which it
wo
uld not
be
convenient
to
put
in
the
place
required
by
the
ordinary
rules
of
word
一
order
without
causing
ambiguity
or
obscurity”)
,如:
It never occurred to me that she was so
dishonest
.
我从来也没有想到她这么不老实。
It is not our
view
that the substance or the tone of his
remarks this
morning will contribute
to creating a lasting
peace
in the Middle East
.
< br>我们认为,他今天上午发言的内容和口气都无助于在中东建立持久的和平。
p>
2)
用作虚义词
(unspecified
“it”)
,代替的主语是难以言明的现象或情形,如用以表示
自然现象、时间、空间以
及用于惯用语之中:
It
?
s
only half an hour?s walk to the
ferry
.
只要走半个钟头就可以到轮渡。
How
is it with the sick man?
那病人怎么样了
?
3)
用作强调词
(emphatic
“it”)
,引导所要强调的成分,也是一种形式主语:
It is in the hour of trial
that a man finds his true profession
.
p>
(B
.
Shaw)
人总是在面临考验的关头,才发现自己的专长。
It is a good horse that never
stumbles
.
(proverb)
人有失误,马有失蹄。
英语的非人称
代词
“it”
往往使句子显出物称倾向,汉语没有这类用法的非
人称代词,因而常用人称,或省略
人称,或采用无主句。此外,英语的
< br>“There be”
句式及用不定代词
“one”
p>
作主语的甸子也具有非人称倾向,汉语则
32
采用比较具体的人称或事物作主语,或不用主语:
In 1958
,
there was
a strike participated in by five thousand
workers
.
1958
年,五千个工人参加了一次罢工。
One must be a servant before one can be
a master
.
(proverb)
要当主人,先当仆人。
二、英语常用被动式,采用物称表达法;汉语常用主动式,采用人称、泛称或隐称表达法< p>
英语的被动式,
尤其是用
“it”
作主语的非人称被动式
(imperso
nal passive)
,
如
it
is believed
,
it is
felt
,
it is thought
等,
往往不说出施动者
(doer
或
agent)
,
而让所叙述的事实或观
点以客观
(objective)
、
间
接
(indirect)
和婉转
(ro
undabout)
的方式表达出来。
G
.
Leech
和
< br>J
.
Svartvik
指出,<
/p>
“The by
-phrase containing the
agent of a passive clause is only required
in
specific
cases
(in
fact
,
about
four
out
of
five
English
passive
clauses
have
no
agent)
.
The
passive
is
especially
associated with
impersonal style (e
.
g
.
in scientific and official
writing)
,
where the question
of who is the agent(i
.
e
.
who
performs the
action described by the verb)is unimportant and
often
irrelevant
.这种不提及行为者的被动式
(agentless
passive)
最常见于公文文体
(bureaucratese)
、科技
文体及新闻文体,其非人称倾向可以使口气显得客观公正,避免
主观臆断,作者也可借此
“drowsy passive
smokescreen”
而免于承担可能有错的责任
(a
pusillanimous shrinking from
responsibi
lity)
.正如
F
.
Crews
所指出的,
“T
hose who don?t want to accept responsibility for
their actions
or opinions
have an intuitive fondness for the pass
ive
.
”
例如:
A current search of the files
indicates that the letter is n0 longer in this
Bureau?s
possession
.
It is noted that
the letter was received two months
ago
,
and after
study
,
re- turned to your
office
.
In
view of
the foregoing
。
it is
regretted that your office has no record of its
receipt
.
If the letter is
found
,
it would be
appreciated if this Bureau was notified
at once
.我们最近查找了卷宗,发现本局并无此信。可以肯定的是,我们于
p>
两个月前收到此信,经研究后,已寄还贵处。鉴于以上情况,贵处仍无收信的记录,我们感到
遗憾。如果你们找
到此信,请即通知本局,不胜感谢。
p>
汉语没有英语这类多重被动式,没有用
“it”
作主语的非人称被动式,也少用被动式,而较多用主动形式表达
被动意义。这与汉人
的主体思维甚有关系。汉人的思维习惯重
“
事在人为
”
,人的动作和行为必然是由人做的,事
或物不可
能自己去完成这些动作和行为,因而表达时往往要说出施动者,常常采用人称表达法;若无法说出确定
的人称,则采用泛称,如
“
有人
< br>”
、
“
人们
”
、
“
人家
”
、
“
大家
”
、
“
别人
”
等;若无法采用泛称,则采用无人称
(
如
“
无
主句
”
)
;当人称或泛称不言自喻时,又常常采用隐称
——
省略人称。即使是被动式,也常常指出施动者,虽然现
代汉语有省略施动者
的倾向。王力指出,
“中国正常的被动式是必须把主事者说出的。
”吕叔湘、朱德熙也指出:
“在形式上,
‘被’字底下一般要
有宾语,表示主动者。
”汉语若要表达类似英语那种被动式的客观口气,则常常
采用无主句
(subjectless
sentences)
、主语省略句
(subject-
omitted sentences)
、祈使句或无形式标志的被动句
(passives
with no grammatical
marks)
。如:
1)
发现了错误,一定要改正。
Wrongs must be righted when they are
discovered
.
2)
看树看果实,看人看作为。
A tree is known by its
fruit
,
and a man is known by
his actions
.
3)
p>
必须调整高等院校的专业设置,改进教学方法。
Specialties in colleges and
universities should be adjusted and teaching
methods improved.
4)
只要知道电压和电
流,就能确定电阻。
The resistance can
be determined provided that the voltage and
current are known
.
5)
当两个物体在一起摩擦时,电子便从一个物体转到另一个物体。
Whenever two objects are
rubbed together
,
electrons
are transferred from one object to the
other
.
第六章
被动与主动
(Passive
vs
.
Active)
33
被动语态在英语里是一种常见的语
法现象。
在某些文体中,
使用被动句几乎成了一种表达习惯
p>
(passive habit)
。
S
p>
.
Baker
在
“
The Practical
Stylist”
一书中指出:
“Our massed
,
scientific
,
< br>and bureaucratic society is so addicted to the
passive voice that you must constantly
alert yourself against its drowsy, impersonal pomp
.
??
被动句促成了物称倾向,
物称倾向也滋长了被动句。英语常用被动句,主要有以下几方面的原因:
一、施事的原因。人们表达思想的时候,通常使用主动句。但当主动句的施事
(agent)
由于以下的原因而不需
要或不可能
指明时,英语往往采用被动句:
1
.施事未知而难以言明,如:
The murderer
was caught yesterday
,
and it
is said that he will be hanged.
凶手已于昨天被捕,据说他将会被绞死。
2
.施事从上下文中可以不言自明,
如:
She told me
that her master had dismissed
her
.
No reason had been
assigned; no objection had been made to her
conduct. She had been forbidden to
appeal to her mistress
.
她告诉我,她的男主人已解雇了她。男主人没有讲明任何理由,对她的行为没有任何异议,也不许
她向女主
人申诉。
3
.施事不如受事重要,或受事需要强调,如:
Her
only son was run over by a
car
.她的独子被汽车轧了。
有时为了隐去含糊的人称主语
(vague pronoun
subject)
,也用被动句
:
At the tea party they served only tea
and cake
.
At the
tea party only tea and cake were
served
.
茶会上只供应茶和饼。
4
p>
.由于特殊的原因而不要指明施事,如为了使叙述显得圆通、得体,或为了表达某种微妙的情
绪
(tact
or
delicacy of
sentiment)
,例如:
Some things have been said here tonight
that ought not to have been
spoken
.
今晚有人在此讲了些不该讲的话。
p>
二、句法的要求。英语重形合,注重句法结构和表达形式。当主动式不便于表达时,出于造句
的需要或修辞
的考虑,往往采用被动式:
p>
1
.为了使句子承上启下、前后连贯、便于衔接,如:
Some kinds of plastics can be
forced through machines which separate them into
long
,
thin
strings
,
called
“fibres”
,
and these fibres
can be made into cloth
.
p>
有几种塑料可以压入机器并分离成细长的纤维,这种纤维可以用来织布。
2
.为了使句子平衡,保持末端中心
(
end focus)
和末端重量
(end weight)<
/p>
,以符合主语简短、谓语复杂的表达习
惯,如:
< br>
1 was astounded that he was
prepared to give me a job
.
他准备给我一份工作,这使我大吃一惊。
三、修辞的考虑。英语修辞学主张不要过分使用被动句,但适
当使用被动句可以使表达方法灵活多变,避免
句型单调,
达到一
定的修辞效果。
例如使用被动式可以减少以填补词
“
it”
、
“there”
引导的句式,
使句子比较干脆、
有力。试比较:
There are many ways to vary the
basic English sentence pattern of subject
—
verb
—
object
.
有许多方法可以变换英语
“
主一动一宾
”
基本句型。<
/p>
The basic English sentence
pattern of subject
—
vetb
—
object can be varied in many
ways
.
英语
“
主一动一宾
”
基本句型可以用许多方法加以变换。
34
四、文体的需要。某些文体较多使用被动句,以迎合其表达的
需要。
R
.
Quirk
等人指出:
There
is
a
notable
difference
in
the
frequency
with
which
the
active
and
passive
voices
are
used
.
The
active
is
generally the more
common
,
but there is
considerable variation among individual
texts
.
The passive has been
found to be
as much as ten times more
frequent in one text
another
.
The major
stylistic factor determining its frequency seems
to
be related to the distinction
between informative and imaginative prose rather
than to a difference of subject matter or of
spoken and written
English
.
The passive is
generally more commonly used in informative than
in imaginative
writing
,
notably in the
objective
,
non-personal style
of scientific articles and news
items
.
这类信
息性的
(informative)
文体主要指科技文体、新闻
文体、公文文体及论述文体。科技论文注重事理和活
动的客观叙述
(impersonal activity seen objectively)
,力戒作者的主观臆断,因而常常避免提及施事。
J
.
Perlmutter
指出,
“It?s
traditional among technical writers to keep
themselves in t
he
background
.
to exclude
personal pronouns and
emphasize their
work instead
.
”
新闻报
道注重口气客观、间接,叙事翔实、冷静
(calm fact
—
teller)
,施事往往难以
言明
,也不宜言明。公文则注重叙述公正、无私,口气客观、正式。
R
.
Ahick
对此曾作如下解释:
The passive voice allows one to express
ideas without attributing them to a specific
individual source
.
That is
why it
is
so
widely
used
in
government
communications
,
in
which
decisions
and
opinions
are
presumed
to
be
those
of
the
bureau or agency as a whole and not of
individual officials
.
But
legitimate use can easily turn into
abuse
.
While the
convention by which governmental edicts
come from an impersonal entity can be
defended
,
the indiscriminate
use of the
passive
as
a
grammatical
camouflage
can
also
be
a
sign
of
moral
weakness
.
Anyone
who
does
not
wish
to
assume
personal responsibility for his
statements finds an
“out”
by
writing
“it is directed
that”
instead of
“I direct
that
,
”or
“it is
the opinion of the
firm”
instead of
“I
think”
.
The
weak
passive
is
used
in
newspaper
writing
for
the
same
reason
for
which
it
is
used
in
governmental
correspondence
:
to
achieve
the
impersonal
note
,
and
thus
,
in
many
instances
。
to
disclaim
direct
responsibility
for
statements that are based on
hearsay
.
英语有
过分使用被动语态的倾向,正式文体尤其如此。英美语言学者都主张多用主动语态,不要滥用被动语
态。许多学者认为被动语态虽有不少用处,但显得罗唆
(wordy)
、间接
(indirect)
、无力
(weak)
、隐晦
(oracular)
p>
,故
弄玄虚
(mysterious)
p>
而深不可测
(impenetrable)
,
使交际者之间隔着一层被动的烟幕
(passive
smoke-screen)
。
R
.<
/p>
Quirk
曾引用
D
.
Senior
攻击被动语态的话,说它是“
half
the
dilatoriness
,
the
passing
of
the
bucks
,
the
shirking
of
respo
nsibility
,
the lazy-
mindedness
,
and the want of i
nitiative…”
.
从众多语言学者批评滥用被动语态这
一事实来看,
英语作者出于各种考虑和需要,确实广泛使用着被动语态,尤其常用于上述
的科技文章
(technical
writing)
、报刊
文章
(newspaperese)
p>
和官方文章
(bureaucratese)
。
英语的结构被动句
(syntactic
passive)
远比意义被动句
(notional pas
sive)
多。一般地说,绝大多数的及物动词和
相当于及物动
词的短语都有被动式。被动式可借助形态变化来表示,因而形式很多:有限定动词多种时态的被动
式,
也有非限定动词
(
不定式
、
分词、
动名词
)
的被动式;
有非人称被动式
(impersonal
passive)
,
如
it is believed
等,
也
有双重被动式
(double
passive)
,如
The date is
expected to be announced soon
,等等。这些结构被动
式不仅应用范
围很广,而且使用的频率也很高。意义被动式,即用主动的形式表达被动的
意义,在英语里比较少见
:
1)These
products sell like hot cakes(= are
so1d)
.
这些产品十分畅销。
2)The clock winds up at the back(=can
be wound up)
.
这个钟在背面上发条。
3)She
dresses beautifully (=is
dressed)
.
她穿得很漂亮。
4)The room filled rapidly(=was
filled)
.
房间很快就挤满了。
5)This
kind of cloth washes very well(=can be
washed)
.
35
这种布很经洗。
6)The
book is printing(=is being
printed)
.
这本书正在印刷。
7)The plan is working out(=is being
worked out)
.
这项计划正在制定。
英语有些被动意义可用词汇手段来表达,如:
名词
(
短语
)
:
examinee(=person examined)
受审查者;受试人;考生
referee(=to whom a question is
referred)
受委托者
his astonishment(=he was
astonished)
他感到惊讶
the man?s trial(
=the man was
tried)
那个人受审问
the imprisonment of the
murderer(=the murderer was imprisoned)
凶手被监禁
形容词:
eatable(=fit
to be eaten)
可吃的
desirable(=to be desired)
想要的
visible(=that can be seen)
可以看见的
respectable(=deserving
respect)
值得尊敬的
介词短语:
in one?s
possession
/
in the possession
of someone(= owned
,
held
,
kept or controlled by someone)
p>
为某人所有,
在某人的控制之下
under the influence (of
alcoho1)(=drunk
;
affected by
alcohol)
酒醉
尽管英语的被动意义有时可以不用被动式来表达,但总的说来
,英语常用结构被动式,少用意义被动式。与
此相反,汉语则常用意义被动式,少用结构
被动式。这一差异主要是因为:
一、
汉语被动式的使用受到限制。
古代汉
语的被动式是用
“
为
”
字或
“
为
……
所
”
结构来表示的
(
如《论语》
“
不为酒困
”
、杜甫诗题
“
茅屋为秋风所
破
”)
,没有
“
被字式
”
,被动意义一般借助主动式来表示。
到了近代,汉语才有了
“
被字式
”
p>
。
“
被
”
字是从
“
遭受
”
的
意义演变而来的
(
如《后汉书
·
贾复传》
“
身被十二创
”)
。
“
被字式
”
曾被称为
“
不幸语态
”(inflictive
voice)
,主要用以
表达对主语而言是不如意或不企望的事
(unpleasant
or
un
desirable)
,如
“
被捕
p>
”
、
“
被杀
”
、
“
被剥削
”
、
“
被压迫
”
等。
现代汉语受西方语言的影响,
“
被字式
”
的使用范围
有所扩大,有时也可以用来表达并非不如意的事,如
“
被选为<
/p>
工会主席
”
、
“
被评为先进工作者
”
等,但大多数被动
意义不用
“
被字式
”
< br>。按照汉语的习惯,如果句中无须指出施
事,
主动意义与
被动意义又不致发生混淆,
一般就不用结构被动式
(
用介词或介词结构作状语
)
,
而用意义被动式。
试比较:
It
was done
.这件事已做了。
(
不说
“
这件事已被做了
”)
It was well done
.这件事做得好。
(
不说
“
这件事已被做得好
”)
It was poorly done
.这件事做得不好。/
这件事搞坏了。/这件事被弄坏了。/这件事给弄糟了。
p>
英语表达这三种意义都可以用被动式,但汉语却用主动式,只有第三种意义才用被动式。
p>
除了
“
被<
/p>
”
字之外,
“
让
”
、
“
给
p>
”
、
“
叫
”
、
“
挨
”
、
“
受
< br>”
、
“
遭
”
、
“
蒙
”
等也可构成被动式,但也大多表达类似
“
被字
式
”
的不如意或不企望的事,如
:
36
1)
庄稼让大水冲跑了。
The crops were washed away by the
flood
.
2)
这股敌人全给游击队消灭了。
The whole horde of enemy soldiers was
wiped out by the guerrillas
.
3)
叫你猜对了。
You?ve guessed
right
.
4)
这家工厂在地震中遭到严重破坏。
This factory was seriously damaged
during the earthquake
.
p>
与汉语相比,英语的被动式所表达的意义不受此类限制,它可以表达不如意的事,也可以表达
如意的事,还
可以表达中性的意义,其应用的范围要比汉语广得多。此外,英语的被动式
是由系表结构演变而来的,可以表示
动作
(
动句
)
,也可以表示状态
(
静旬
)
,而汉语的被动式却不是由系表结构演
变而来的,一般只表示动作,而不表
示状态。比较:
The glass is broken
.
< br>(
静句
)
玻璃杯
破了。
(
不用被动式
)
The glass was broken by my brother
.
(
动句
)
p>
玻璃杯被我弟弟打破了。
(
被动式
)
玻璃杯是我弟弟打破的。
(
被动式的转换式
)
The house is
surrounded by trees
.
(
静句
)
房子周围都是树。
(
不用被动式
)
The
enemy was soon surrounded by our troops
.
(
动句
)
敌人很
快被我军包围了。
(
被动式
)
汉语的被动式除了受到意义的限制之外,还受到形式的限制。
王力指出,
“
中国正常的被动式是必须把主事
< br>者说出的。
??
吕叔湘、朱德熙也认为,
“
在形式上,
?
被
?
字底下一般要有宾语,表示主动者。
”
这种限制使得许多
难以说出施事者的句子不能
变成被动式,虽然现代汉语有突破这种限制的倾向。与此相反,英语大多数被动句却
不必
说出施事者。
R
.
Quirk
等人指出,
“Unlike the
act
ive
subject
,
the agent phrase is
optional
.
1n
fact
,
approximately
four out of five English passive
sentences have no expressed (surface) agent
.
R
.
Zandvoort<
/p>
也认为,
“The passive is
especially used in sentences in which
it is unnecessary or undesirable to mention the
agent
,
though the agent may
be
expressed by means of an adjunct
with by
”
. O
.
Jespersen
也有类似的观点。由于英汉这一表达形式的差异,英语
被
动式的使用比汉语自由得多了。
王力指
出:
“
中国被动式用途之狭,是西洋被动式所比不上的。本来,
西洋语言也是主动式多于被动式,尤
其在英法语里
}
有些及物动词竟不能有被动式,例如英语的
have
,当其用于本义时,罕有用于被动式的。至于中
国语呢,就有大部分的及物动词不能用
被动式了。
……?
被
?
字有
?
遭受
?
的意思,因此,被动式所叙述者,对主位
而言,必须是不如意或不企望的事。西
洋的主动句大多数可转成被动句,中国则恰恰相反,主动句大多数是不能
转成被动句的。
??
例如:
1)He is respected by
everybody
.
人人都尊敬他。
(
< br>不能译为
“
他被人人尊敬
”)<
/p>
2)The ceremony was
abbreviated by rain
.
因为下雨,仪式举行得很简短。
(<
/p>
不能译为
“
仪式被雨缩短了
“)
3)John actually
loved Mary and was loved in
return
.
约翰真的爱玛丽,而
玛丽也爱约翰。
(
不能译为
“
约翰真的爱玛丽,也被玛丽爱
”)
汉语常用主动形式表达英语的被动意义:
37
1)My holiday
afternoons were spent in ramble about the
surrounding country
.
(Washington Irving)
每逢假日的下午,我总要漫游周围的乡村。
2)Not only politeness but an attitude
of reverence is demanded in
church
.
在教堂里,人们不仅要有礼貌,而且应该有一种虔诚的态度。
3)Language is shaped by, and shapes,
human thought
.
人的思想形成了语言,而语言又影响了人的思想。
4)Air that is cooled suddenly shrinks
as some of the moisture is squeezed
out
.
and clouds age
formed
.
突然冷却的空气,由于挤出了部分水分,体积收缩,就变成了
云。
5)The Chinese Table
Tennis Team also visited a Manhattan public
school
,
delighting the pupils
and being delighted
by
them
.
(“Ch
ina U
.
S
.
Table
Tennis)
中国乒乓球队还访问了曼哈顿的一所公立学校。队员们和学生们都为这
次见面感到高兴。
6)Better
my
life
should
be
ended
by
their
hate
,
than
that
hated
1ife
should
be
prolonged
to
live
without
your
love
.
(“Ro
meo and
Juliet”)
我宁可死在他们的
仇恨之下,也不愿意延长这可恨的生命而得不到你的爱。
p>
汉语的被动式既然受到意义和形式的限制,大多数被动意义就必须采用其他形式表达。
二、使用受事主语
(Receptor subject)
p>
导致大量的
“
当然被动句
< br>”
。
根据汉人的思维习惯,人
的行为,必然是由人来完成的,事或物不可能完成人的行为。这种不言而喻的思维
模式使
人们在表达时常常把施事者隐含起来,
而把注意力集中在受事者及行为本身,
因此,
受事者便充当了主语。
另一方面,表示行为
的动词没有形态变化,形式相同的动词可以表达主动意义,也可以表达被动意义,被动式的
使用又受到很大的限制,因此,
“
受事
+
动词
”
的格式便成了汉人自古以来
的一种表达习惯,其被动意义是由交际
者的语感而共同认知的。广泛使用受事主语的倾向
便导致了大量的“当然被动句”
。一般说来,越是地道的汉语,
这种句式越多:
1)
昨晚
我盖了两条被子。
(
不说
“
昨晚我被两条被子盖着
”)
Last night 1 was covered up with two
quilts
.
2)<
/p>
这锅饭能吃十个人。
(
不说
“
这锅饭能被十个人吃
”)
A pot of rice like this can feed 10
people
.
3)<
/p>
一匹马骑两个人。
(
不说
“
一匹马被两个人骑”
)
Two
persons rode one horse
.
p>
4)
困难克服了,工作完成了,问题也解决了。
The difficulties have been
overcome
,
the work has been
finished and the problem
solved
.
英语的被动式也常常译成汉语的主动式,如:
The first clock with weights and wheels
is said to have been invented about the year 1000
A
.
D
.
,<
/p>
but clocks of that
kind could
not be carried about from place to
place
.
Another four hundred
and fifty years passed before the first watch
was made in
Germany
.
(“New
Horizon E
nglish
Reader”)
据说第一座装有钟
摆和齿轮的钟大约是在公元一千年左右发明的。
但是这样的钟不便携带。
又过了四百五十
年,第一块表才在德国制造出来。
三、当不需要或不可能说出施事者的时候,汉语可以采用无主
句或主语省略句来保持句子的主动形式。英语
注重句子结构齐整,句中不能没有主语,只
好采用被动式或其他句式,以便于把施事者省略或隐含起来。如:
1)
要制造飞机,就必须仔细考虑空气阻力问题。
Air resistance must be given careful
consideration when the aircraft is to be
manufactured
.
38
2)
为什么总把这些麻烦事推给我呢
?
Why should all the unpleasant jobs be
pushed on to me?
3)
注意看看信的地址是否写对了。
Care should be taken to see that the
letter is properly
addressed
.
4)
用机械加工方法,特别是用磨削方法,可以获得最佳表面光洁度。
Best surface finish is provided by
machining method, especially by
grinding
.
四、
当施事者难以指明时,
汉语还可以采用通称
(generic person)
或泛称
(
如
“
人
”
、
“
有人
”
、
“
人们
”
、
“
大家
”
、
“
人
家
”
、
“
p>
别人
”
、
“
某人
”
等
)
作主语,以保持句子的主动形式。英语也有不定代词
(
< br>如
one
,
some
,
any
,
every<
/p>
,
all
,
so
mebody
,
anybody
,
p>
everybody
等
)
< br>,但其用途与汉语的通称不尽相同。英语在许多情况下宁可采用被动式也不
用这类
代词作主语,如大量的非人称被动式
(impersonal passive)
用
“it”
作形式主语:
It is said that…
有人说,据说,据云
It is well known that…
大家知道,众所周知
It is generally considered that…
人们普遍认为
当汉语不便于采用被动式时,常常采用通称作主语,如:
1)He has often, not always
justly
,
been accused of
indecisiveness
.
人们常常指责他优柔寡断,虽然这种指责并不总是公正的。
2)V
oices were heard calling
for help
.
有人听见呼救的声音。
3)Electrons are known to be minute
negative charges of
electricity
.
大家知道,电子是极为微小的负电荷。
汉语用通称作主语的句式,也常常译成英语的被动式:
1)
众所周知,中国人在四千年前就发明了指南针。
< br>
It is well known that the
compass was invented in China four thousand years
ago
.
2)
有人问她感觉如何,她说:
“
呼吸困难。
”
When asked how she
felt
,
she
said
:
“I?m having trouble
breathing
.
??
p>
3)
人们必须联系世界环境去认识和研究人口控制问题。
The problem of population
control has to be recognized and approached in a
world environmental context
.
五、当不便使用被动式时,汉语可采用某些转换式来表达被动
意义。如:
1
.处置
式
(
即
“
把字
式
”
或
“
将字
式
”)
,表示施事对受事的处置或支配行为。王力认为,
“
被动式和处置式的形
式虽不同
(
一是被动句,一是主动句
)
,而其所叙行为的性质却大致相同。譬如一件事,在主事者一方面看来是一
种处置,在
受事者一方面看来往往就是一种不如意或不企望的事。
?
他把你
打了一顿
?
,在
?
他
?
看来是一种处置,
在
?
你
?
看来就是一种损
害了。因此,多数被动式是可以改为处置式的。被动句若要转成主动句,也是变为处置式
较为适宜。
”
试比较:
树被风刮倒了。
The tree was blown
down by the wind
.
风把树刮倒了。
The wind
blew down the tree
.
她被人杀害了。
She was
killed
.
有人把她杀害了。
someone killed
her
.
敌人的阴谋被揭穿了。
The enemy?s plot
was exposed
.
我们把敌人的阴谋揭穿了。
We exposed the
enemy?s plot
.
39
英语的被动式译成汉语时,若不便采用
“
被字式
”
,常常采用
“
处置式
”
:
1)These questions should not be
confused
.
不要把这些问题混在一起。
2)The mechanical energy can be changed
back into electrical energy by a
generator
.
利用发电机,可以将机械能再变成电能。
3)Whenever work is being
done
,
energy is being
converted from one form into
another
.
凡是做功,都是把能从一种形式转换成另一种形式。
4)Metals are deliberately mixed to
produce hundreds of new substances with desirable
qualities not otherwise avail
able
.
故意把各种金属混合在一起,可以产生数百种新物质。这些物质的特性合乎人们的需要,也是一般金属所没
有的。
5)Kissinger was
al
armed by China?s first atomic
b
last in October
,
1964
.
一九六四年十月,中国爆
炸了第一颗原子弹,这把基辛格吓了一跳。
2
.
“
为
……
所
”
式,是较古的被动式,与
现代的被动式结合,即为
“
被
……
p>
所
”
,如:
茅屋为秋风所破。
The
thatched house was destroyed by the autumn
storm
.
她被花言巧语所陶醉。
She is intoxicated with sweet
words
.
3
.
“
是
……
的
”
式,即表示状态的静句,通常可以与表示动作的动句互相
转换,如:
这些产品是我国制造的。
(
我国制造这些产品
)
These
products are made in our
country
.
风速是用秒米表示
的。
(
用秒米表示风速
)
The speed of wind is expressed in
metres by second
.
4
.
“……
的是
”
式,一般可以与
“
是
(
由
)……
的
”
式互相转换,
推荐我的是一位教授。
(
我是由一位教授推荐的
)
I was
recommended by a professor.
接见他的是一位秘书。<
/p>
(
他是由一位秘书接见的
)
He was received by a secretary.
5
.
“……
加以/予以
”
式,组成倒置的动宾结构
,如:
这个问题将在下一章加以讨论。
This question will be discussed in the
next chapter
.
这必须在适当的时候予以处理。
It
must be dealt with at the appropriate
time
.
p>
除了上述的形式以外,
汉语还可以通过各种变通的手段,
用与英语不同的句型和词性来表达英语的被动意义,
如:
< br>
1)They are paid for
this
.
他们拿钱就是干这个的。
2)The culture of antiquity was
rediscovered.
古代文化重见天日。
3)He has been pursued, day by day, and
year by year
,
by a most
phenomenal and astonishing
luckiness
.
40
一天又一天,一年又一年,他始终吉星高照,令人惊异不己。
4)He was guided in his everyday life by
an unshakable conviction that moral values are
absolute
.
他在日常生活中
有一条不可动摇的信念,那就是,道德标准是绝对的。
p>
英语使用被动式,常常是为了表示某种客观、间接和非人称的口气,以迎合某些表达的需要。
汉语要表达同样的
口气,往往不用被动式,而用上述的无主句、主语省略句、主语泛称句
以及其他句式。总之,英语常用被动式,
汉语常用主动式。英汉互译时,句式的转换便成
了一种常用的技巧。
第七章
静态与动态
(Stative
vs
.
Dynamic)
英语倾向于多用名词,
因而叙述呈静态
(sta
tive)
;
汉语倾向于多用动词,
因
而叙述呈动态
(dynamic)
。
R
.
Quirk
等人对静态和动态曾作如
下解释:
Broadly speaking, nouns
can be characterized naturally as
?stative?
in that they refer
to entities that are regarded as
stable
.
whether
these are concrete (physical) like house
,
table
,
paper
,
or abstract (of the mind)like h
ope
,
botany
,
length
.
At the opposite
pole
,
verbs can be equally
naturally characterized as
?dynamic?
:
they are fitted
(by their capacity
to show tense and
aspect
,
for example) to
indicate action
,
activity and
temporary or changing
conditions
.
These relations
between the open classes can be
summarized thus
:
STA
TIVE
noun
?
adjective
DYNAMIC
verb
adverb
英语的静态倾向,主要表现在以下几方面:
< br>一、名词化
(Nominalization)
是英语常
见的现象。
名词化主要指用名词来表达原来属
于动词
(
或形容词
)
< br>所表达的概念,
如用抽象名词来表达动作、
行为、
变化、
状态、
品质、
情感等概念。
S
.
Potter
在
“Changing E
nglish
p>
”
一书中曾指出英语
“
名词优势于动词
”
的倾向
(pre
ponderance
of
nouns
over
verbs)
。这种名词优
势往往可以使表达比较简洁,造句比较灵活,行文比较自然,也便于表达较为
复杂的思想
内容。试比较:
The
doctor
arrived
extremely
quickly
and
examined
the
patient
uncommonly
carefully;
the
result
was
that
he
recovered very
speedily
.
The
docto
r? s extremely quick
arriva
l and uncommonly careful
examination of the patient brought about his very
speedy recovery
.
医生迅速到达,并非常仔细地检查了病人,因此病人很快就康复了。
Freedom-loving people
everywhere condemned them because they violated
the agreement reached at Helsinki and
abused basic human rights in their own
country
.
The abuse of basic
human rights in their own country in violation of
the
agreement reached at Helsinki
earned them the condemnation of freedom-loving
people everywhere
.
他们违反在赫尔辛基达成的协议,在国内侵犯基本人权。因此受到了各地热爱自由的人们的谴责。
< p>
运用名词化表达法
(nominal style)
可以使叙述较为准确,
贴切,
但也会使语言抽象、
难解。
O
.
J
espersen
指出:
It
seems possible to express ideas with greater
precision and adequacy by
means
of nouns than by
means of
the
more pictorial
verbs
.
…When we express by
means o
f nouns what is generally
expressed by finite
verbs
,
our language
becomes not only more abstract, but
more abstruse, owing among other things to the
fact that in the verbal substantive
some of the life-giving elements of the
verb (time
,
mood
,<
/p>
person)disappear
.
W
hile the nominal style may therefore serve
the purposes of philosophy
,<
/p>
where
,
however
,
it now and then does nothing but
disguise simple thoughts in the garb of
41
profound
wisdom
,
it does not lend
itself so well to the purposes of everyday life.
英美不少语言学者都指出英语有过分使用名词的习惯
(noun
habit)
.名词使用多了,与之相随的介词
(
尤其是
of
短语
)
也必然增多,
与此同时,
富有活力和生气的动词也就相应减少,
弱化动词
be
的各种形式成了
hard
workers
和
heavy-duty
words
,这就使英语的静态倾向更加明显。如;
The
effect
of
the
overuse
of
nouns
in
writing
is
the
placing
of
too
much
strain
upon
the
verbs
and
the
resultant
prevention of
movement of the thought
.
p>
这一句子充满了名词、动名词和介词,其唯一的谓语动词是
“i
p>
s
”
.这个软弱的动词必须拉动一个满载名
词的
主语,还必须推动两个满载名词的表语,这就使整个句子缺乏动态感。若将部分名词
改为动词,即可分担句子的
负荷,化静态为动态:
One who overuses nouns in writing
places too much strain upon the verbs and as a
result prevents the thought from
moving
along
.
写作时
过分使用名词,势必给动词增加太多的负担,因而阻碍思路畅通。
过分使用名词会使文句冗长
(wor
dy)
、含糊
(vague)
,缺乏活
力
(1ifeless)
,许多英语文体学家都反对滥用名词化
表达法,主张通过多用生动活泼的动词来简化句子结构。试比较:
Integrated into the circulation of
national life much more completely than any other
modern literature
,
American
belles
—
lettres
also give a much more faithful and adequate
picture of the entire civilization to which they
belong than
literature abroad, whose
very compliance with
一
or
willful opposition
to
一
traditions that have long
lost their anchorage
in the depths of
their respective national civilizations, renders
them unable to keep abreast of the rejuvenated
spirit of
their
epoch
.
这一句
子使用了多个抽象名词,因而显得冗长、死板,若用动词代替这些名词,即可使句子轻松、活泼:
American
belles
—
lettres circulate in
the national life much more than other modern
literatures do; they picture the
entire
civilization to which they belong more faithfully
and adequately
.
The spirit of
the times has become young
again
,
and
literatures
abroad
cannot
keep
abreast
with
it
because
of
certain
traditions
they
comply
with
or
willfully
oppose
.
These
traditions were once anchored in the depths of
their national
civilizations
.
but have 1ost
that anchor
—
age
long ago
.
二、用名词表示施事者
(Agentive
noun)
,以代替动词。
英语除
了用抽象名词表示行为和动作
(
如
re
alize
—
realization
,
complete
—
complet
ion)
等概念外,
还常用含有行
为和
动作意义的普通名词代替动词。大量由动词派生
(
如以
-er
或
-or
结尾<
/p>
)
的名词既表示施事者,又保留原来动词
的意义。这类名词常常与前置形容词构成静态结构:
a
hard worker
—
someone who
works hard
工作勤奋的人
a
slow walker
—
someone who
walks slowly
走路很慢的人
a good
thief
—
someone who thieves
well
很会偷窃的人
a
bad sailor
—
someone who often
gets seasick
会晕船的人
p>
汉语由动词加后缀构成的名词
(
如读者、教
师、打字员、观察家、修理工
)
用来指人,不再表示行为或动作
,
因而英语这类名词往往要转换为汉语动词:
1)He is a good eater and a good sleeper
.
(C
.
Ec
kersley)
他能吃能睡。
2)He is a young and rapid writer.
(S
.
Coleridge)
他是个笔头快的年青人。
3)He was a nonsmoker and a teetotaler
p>
.
(E
.
Snow
)
他既不抽烟,也不喝酒。
4)You must be a very bad
learner
,
or else you must be
going to a very bad teacher.
(C
.
Eckersley)
42
你一定很不善于学习,要不然就是教你的人很不会教。
5)She is the best hater
I?ve
ever known
.
How she got to
hate me so much!
我所认识的人当中,她最会记仇。她怎么变得这么恨我呢
?
6)I used to be a bit of a fancier
myself
.
过去我也常常有点喜欢胡思乱想。
7)That boy is a master complicator.
那男孩可真会捣乱。
8)You?re all
clock-watchers
today!
你们今天老是看着钟表等待下班啊
I
9)since he lost his
job
,
he?s been a
loner
.
他失业以后,就很不合群了。
1o)The computer is a far more careful
and industrious inspector than human
beings
.
计算机比人检查得更细心、更勤快。
11)Every country is the best judge of
what is required to safeguard its national
security
.
每个国家需要什
么来保卫国家安全,只有它自己才能作出最好的判断。
12)He was a clever
man
;
a pleasant companion; a
careless student
;
with a
great propensity for running into
debt
,
and a partiality for
the
tavern
.
(??Va
nity
Fair
”
)
他是个聪明人,很好相处,可是学习不肯用功
;
他老是东挪西借
,
又喜欢上酒店喝酒。
这类名词有时并不指人,而是用来代替动词,如:
1)The real shocker was that things
dragged on well beyond the two weeks I had
anticipated
.
最令人吃惊的是,事情拖了很久,大大超过我原来设想的两周。
2)Litmus paper can be used as an
indicator of the presence or not of acid in a
solution
.
石蕊试纸可用于指示溶液中是否含有酸。
三、用名词代替形容词,构成标题式短语
(Headline
phrase)
。
报刊标
题为了节约版面,
尽量略去虚词和其他次要的词,
把具有刺激性
的词语
(stimulating words)
挤压在一起,
因而名词连用便成了一种“
free-
and-
easy
habit”
。如:
Sino-American Trade Review Talks Start
中美贸易回顾会谈开始
January Crude Oil Output Beats Target
一月份原油产量超过指标
5oo-Metre-Long Flood Prevention Dyke
Built
五百米长的防洪坝建成
这种名词连用的短语结构简化,表达方便,词数少而信息量大
,其使用范围已大大超出了报刊标题,在现代
英语里几乎俯拾即是。
B
.
Foster
指出,
“The
whole
tendenc
y
of
the
modern
language
is
towards
doing
away
with
adjectives, or at
least
,
using nouns as
epithets”
如:
gold reserve
黄金储备
generation
gap
两代人之间的隔阂
figure control
problem
保持优美身材的问题
job
opportunity discrimination(
因种族或性别而异的
)
就业机会歧视
名词连用或复合名词在科技英语里尤其常见:
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