-
What is linguistics?
Linguistics is the scientific study of
language.
----A person who
studies linguistics is known as a linguist.
Prescriptive &Descriptive
规定性
&
描写性
(
定义、区别
)
Prescriptive
----
If
a
linguistic
study
aims
to
lay
down
rules
for
“correct”
linguistic behavior in using language
(traditional grammar)
Descriptive ---- If a linguistic study
aims to describe and analyze the
language people actually use (modern
linguistic)
Synchronic &
Diachronic
共时性对历时性（定义）
Synchronic study---- description of a
language at some point of time in
history (modern linguistics)
Diachronic study----
description of a language as it changes through
time
(historical development of
language over a period of time)
Langue &Parole (F. de Saussure)
语言对话语
Langue
----
the
abstract
linguistic
system
shared
by
all
members
of
a
speech
community.
Parole ---- the realization of langue
in actual use.
Saussure
takes a sociological view of language and his
notion of langue is
a matter of social
conventions.
Competence
&Performance (Chomsky)
语言能力对语言运用（定义）
Competence ----
the ideal
user’s knowledge of the rules of
this
language
Performance ----
the actual realization of this knowledge in
linguistic
communication
Chomsky looks at language from a
psychological point of view and to him
competence is a property of the mind of
each individual.
Traditional
grammar & Modern linguistics
传统语法对现代语言学（区别）
Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive,
written, Latin-based framework
Modern linguistics ----- descriptive,
spoken, not necessarily Latin-based
framework
The design features
of human language (Charles Hockett)
Arbitrariness
（任意性）声音和事物之间的关联
Productivity/Creativity
（能产性）
Duality
（双层性）
Displacement
（移位性）
Cultural
transmission
（文化传承）
Phonetics
语音学
(
定义和分类
)
Phonetics is defined
as
the
study
of
the
phonic medium
of language,
it is
concerned
with all the
sounds that occur in the world’s
language.
Three branches of
phonetics
（发音语音学，听觉语音学，声学语音学）
Articulatory
phonetics----
from
the
speakers’
point
of
view,
“how
speakers
produce
speech
sounds”
Auditory
phonetics----
from
the
hearers’
point
of
view,
“how
sounds
are
perceived”
Acoustic
phonetics----from
the
physical
way
or
means
by
which
sounds
are
transmitted
from one to
another.
Classification of
vowels
（元音）
Monophthongs or pure/single
vowels
（单元音）
Diphthongs or gliding vowels
（双元音）
According
to which part of the tongue is held highest in the
process of production, the
vowels can be distinguished as:
。
Phone(
音素
),
phoneme
（音位）
, and
allophone
（音位变体）
（区分判断）
A
phone----
a
phonetic
unit
or
segment.
The
speech
sounds
we
hear
and
produce
during
linguistic
communication are all phones.
Phones do not necessarily distinguish
meaning, some do, and some
don’t。
A
phoneme----
is
a
phonological
unit;
it
is
a
unit
of
distinctive
value;
an
abstract
unit,
not a particular sound, but it is represented by a
certain phone in certain
phonetic
context
Allophones
----
the phones that can
represent a phoneme in different phonetic
environments.
Phonemic
contrast
（音位对立）
,
Complementary
distribution
（互补分布）
and
Minimal
pair
（最小对立体）
.
Complementary
distribution----allophones
of
the
same
phoneme
are
in
complementary distribution. They do not
distinguish meaning. They occur in
different phonetic contexts, e.g.
dark [l] & clear
[l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].
(
课上强调
)
The
clear
[l]
always
occurs
before
a
vowel
while
the
dark
[l]
always
occurs
between a vowel and a consonant, or at
the end of a word. So the
allophones(
音位
变体
)
are said to be in Complementary
distribution.
Some rules in
phonology
（音位学）
Sequential
rules(
序列
)
The rules that govern the combination
of sounds in a
particular
language, e.g. in English, “k b i I”
might
possibly form blik,
klib, bilk, kilb. If a word begins with
a
[l] or a [r], then the
next sound must be a vowel.
Assimilation
rule(
同化
)
Assimilates
one
sound to another by “copying” a
feature of a sequential phoneme, thus
making the two
phones
similar
Deletion
rule(
省略
)
it tells us when a sound is
to be deleted although it is
orthographically
represented
。
E.g.
design
,
paradigm
, there is no [g]
sound; but the
[g] sound is
pronounced in their corresponding forms
signature
,
designation
,
paradigmatic
.
Suprasegmental
features
（超切分特征）
----the
phonemic features that occur above the
level of the segments ( larger than
phoneme):
判断题（具体书上看）
Syllable
：音节
stress
（重音）
tone
（低音）
intonation
（语调）
Chapter 3
Morphology(
形态学
)
Morphology
to refer to the
part of the grammar that is concerned with word
formation and
Open class word and
closed class
word(
开放词类和封闭词类
)
Open
class
words
----content
words
of
a
language
to
which
we
can
regularly
add
new
words,
such as nouns,
adjectives, verbs and adverbs.
Closed
class
words----
grammatical
or
functional
words,
such
as
conjunction,
articles,
preposition and pronouns.
（数次，感叹词半开放半封闭词类）
Morpheme--the minimal unit of
meaning
（词素—最小的意义单位）
Free and Bound morphemes
(
自由词素和粘附词素
)
Free morpheme
—
a
word by
itself(
独立自由运用
)
Bound morpheme---attached to another
one
（必须依附于自由词素，否则不能构成词）
Allomorphs
（词素变体）
---th
e variant forms of a morpheme. e.g. a boy, an
hour
Word
structure
Root(
词根
)constitutes the core
of the word and carries the major component of its
meaning. A root is that part of the
word left when all the affixes (inflectional &
derivational)
are
removed,
e.g.
“desire”
in
“desirable”,
“care”
in
“carefully”,
“nation” in “internationalism”,
“believe” in “unbeliev(e)able”…
Stem(
词干
) A stem
is part of a word-form which remains when all
inflectional affixes
have been removed,
e.g. “Undesirable” in undesirables
Base
词基
A base is
any form to which affixes of any kind can be
added. This means any
stem and root can
be termed as a base.
A base can be added by both
inflectional & derivational affixes while a stem
can
be added only by inflectional
affixes;
A base
is derivationally analyzable (e.g.
undesire
in
undesirable)
while a root
cannot be further analyzed, e.g.
desire
in
undesirable;
Root, stem and base can be
the same form, e.g.
desire
in
desired;
Undesirable
in
undesirables
is either a
stem or a base;
Desirable
in
undesirable
is only a
base.
Compound
（复合词）
When the two words are in
the same grammatical category, the compound will
be in
this category, e.g.
postbox, landlady, icy-cold,
blue-
black…
When
the
two
words
fall
into
different
categories,
the
class
of
the
second
or
final
word
will
be
the
grammatical
category
of
the
compound,
e.g.
head-strong,
pickpocket…
Compounds have different stress
patterns from the non-compounded word sequence,
e.g. red coat, green house…
The meaning of a compound
is not always the sum of the meanings of its
parts.
Chapter 4
Syntax
（句法）
What
is syntax?
Syntax----a
branch
of
linguistics
that
studies
how
words
are
combined
to
form
sentences
and the rules that govern the formation
of sentences.
Major lexical
categories
: N, V, Adj, Prep.
Minor
Lexical
categories
:
Det(d
eterminer
限定词
),
Deg
（
degree
words
表程度的词）
,
Qual
（
qualifier
频度副词）
, Aux
（
Au
xilarity
助动词）
, Conj
（
conjunction
连词
）
.
The
criteria
on
which
categories
are
determined
：
Meaning
、
Inflection
Distribution
（
The
most reliable criterion of determining
a word’s category is its distribution.）
Phrase
categories----
the
syntactic
units
that
are
built
around
a
certain
word
category
are
called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V),
AP(A), PP(P).
The
structure: specifier + head + complement
Head
（中心语）
---- the
word around which a phrase is formed
Specifier
（标志语）
----
the words on the left side of the heads
Complement
（补语）
---
- the words on the right side of the
heads
The XP
rule
（词组层面上）
X’
Theory
XP ? (Specifier)X’
X’ ?
X(complement)
Do insertion
（
DO
的插入）
Do
insertion---- Insert
interrogative
do
into an
empty Infl
（屈折变化）
position.
Deep structure & surface
structure
（深层结构和表层结构的定义和区分）
Deep
structure----
formed
by
the
XP
rule
in
accordance
with
the
head’s
sub-
categorization properties; it contains all the
units and relationships that are
necessary for interpreting the meaning
of the sentence.
Surface
structure----corresponding to the final syntactic
form of the sentence which
results
from
appropriate
transformations;
it
is
that
of
the
sentence
as
it
is
pronounced or written.
Chapter 5
Semantics
（语义学）
Semantics----the study of language
meaning.
Meaning is central
to the study of communication.
What is meaning? ---- Scholars under
different scientific backgrounds have different
understandings of language
meaning
Some views
concerning the study of meaning
Naming theory (Plato)
唯名论
The conceptualist view
概念论
Contextualism (Bloomfield)
语境论
Behaviorism
行为论
The conceptualist
view holds
that there is no direct link
between a linguistic form and what it
refers to (i.e.
between
language and the real world); rather, in the
interpretation of meaning
they are linked through the
mediation of concepts in the mind.
（
P63
）
Ogden and Richards: semantic
triangle
The symbol or form
refers to the linguistic elements (words and
phrases);
The referent
refers to the object in the world of
experience;
Thought or
reference refers to concept.
The
symbol
or
a
word
signifies
things
by
virtue
of
the
concept
associated
with
the
form
of the
word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept
looked at from this point
of view is
the meaning of the word.
Contextualism (Bloomfield)
语境论
Meaning
should
be
studied
in
terms
of
situation,
use,
context
—
elements
closely
linked
with language behavior. Two types of
contexts are recognized:
Situational context: spatiotemporal
situation
Linguistic
context: the
probability of a word’s
co
-occurrence or
collocation.
Behaviorism
行为论
Behaviorists
attempted
to
define
meaning
as
“
the
situation
in
which
the
speaker
utters
it
and the response it calls forth in the
hearer”.
The
story of Jack and Jill:
Lexical
meaning(
词汇意义
)
Sense and
reference
（意义和指称）
are both
concerned with the study of word meaning.
They are two related but different
aspects of meaning.
Major
sense relations
Synonymy
同义现象
?Antonymy
反义现象
Polysemy
多义现象
Homonymy
同行异义
Hyponymy
下义关系
Synonymy
同义现象
Synonymy refers to the sameness or
close
similarity of
meaning. Words that are close
in meaning are called
synonyms.
1)
Dialectal
synonyms---- synonyms used in
different regional dialects,
e.g. autumn - fall,
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