-
?
Chapter 1:
Introduction
1.
Linguistics:
Linguistics is generally
defined as the scientific study of language.
2. general linguistics:
The
study of language as a whole.
3.
applied linguistics:
the application of
linguistic theories and principles to language
teaching, especially the teaching of
foreign and second languages.
4.
prescriptive:
If
linguistic
study
aims
to
lay
down
rules
for
“
correct
and
standard
”
behavior
in using language, ,it is said
to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they
should and
should not say).
5.
descriptive:
If
a
linguistic
study
aims
to
describe
and
analyze
the
language
people
actually
use, it is said to
be descriptive.(09C)
6. synchronic
study:
The description of language at
some point of time in history is a
synchronic study. (06C/ 04)
7. diachronic study:
It’s a historical study of language,it
studies the historical
development of
language over a period of time. (06C)
8.
langue:
Lange
refers
to
the
abstract
linguistic
system
shared
by
all
the
members
of
a
speech
community.
9. parole
:
Parole refers to the
realization of langue in actual use.
10. competence
:
The ideal user
’
s knowledge
of the rules of his language.
（
08F/09C
）
linguistic
competence:
universally found in the
grammars of all human languages,syntactic
rules comprise the system of
internalized linguistic knowledge of a language
speaker.
competence
有什么区别？？
11. performance
:
The actual realization of this knowledge in
linguistic communication.
12.
language
:
Language
is
a
system
of
arbitrary
vocal
symbols
used
for
human
communication.
13. design features
:
Design features refer to
the defining properties of human language
that distinguish it from any animal
system of communication.
14.
arbitrariness:
Arbitrariness refers to
there is no logical connection between meanings
and sounds.(08C)
15.
productivity:
Language is creative in
that it makes possible the construction and
interpretation of new signals by it’s
users.
16.
duality
（
double
articulation
）
:
Language consists of two sets of structure, with
lower
lever of sound, which is
meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.
17. displacement:
Language
can be used to refer to contexts removed from the
immediate
situation of the speaker.(
regardless of time or space) (04)
18.
cultural transmission:
The
capacity for language is genetically based while
the details
of
any
language
system
have
to
be
taught
and
learned.(
Language
is
culturally
transmitted
rather
than by instinct).
19.
Sociolinguistics
:
the
study
of
all
social
aspects
of
language
and
its
relation
with
society
from the core of the
branch.
linguistics
:
the
study
of
language
processing,
comprehending
and
production,
as
well
as
language acquisition.
icative
competence:
the ability to use
language
appropriately
in social situations.
?
Chapter 2:
Phonology
1. phonic medium
:
The limited range of
sounds which are meaningful in human communication
constitute the phonetic medium of
language.(and the individual sounds within this
range are
speech sounds
)
2. phonetics
:
The study of phonic medium of language and it is
concerned with all sounds
in the
world
’
s languages. (06C)
3. articulatory phonetics
:
It studies sounds from the
speaker
’
s point of view,
i.e. how
a speaker uses his speech
organs to articulate the sounds. (03)
4.
auditory
phonetics:
The
studies
sounds
from
the
hearer
’
s
point
of
view,
i.e.
how
the
sounds
are perceived by the
hearer.
5. acoustic
phonetics:
It studies the physical
properties of the stream of sounds which the
speaker issues.
或者
It studies the way sounds
travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical
means by
which sounds are transimitted
through the air from one person to another)
6. voicing:
the way that
sounds are produced with the vibration of the
vocal cords.
7. voiceless:
the way that sounds are produced with no vibration
of the vocal cords.
8.
broad
transcription:
The
use
of
letter
symbols
only
to
show
the
sounds
or
sounds
sequences
in written form.
9.
narrow
transcription:
The
use
of
letter
symbol,
together
with
the
diacritics
to
show
sounds
in
written form.
10.
diacritics:
The symbols used to show
detailed articulatory features of sounds.
11. IPA:
short
for International Phonetic Alphabets,
a
system
of symbols consists
of letters
and diacritics,
used to represent the pronunciation of words in
any language.
12.
aspiration:
A little puff of air that
sometimes follows a speech sound.
13.
manner of articulation
:
The
manner in which obstruction is created.
14. place of articulation
:
The place where
obstruction is created.
15.
consonant:
a speech sound in which the
air stream is obstructed in one way or another.
16. vowel
:
a
speech sound in which the air stream from the lung
meets with no obstruction.
17.
monophthong
:
the individual
vowel.
18.
diphthong
:
The
vowel
which
consists
of
two
individual
vowels
and
are
produced
by
moving
one
vowel position to another through intervening
positions.(08F)
19. phone:
A
phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and
produce during linguistic
communication
are all phones.
20. phoneme
:
An abstract phonological
unit that is of distinctive
value;it
’
s represented
by a certain phone in a certain
phonetic context. (06F/ 04)
或者
The smallest unit of sound
in a language which can distinguish two sounds.
21. allophone
:
the different phones which can represent the same
phoneme in different
phonetic
enviroments are called allophones of that phoneme
(07C/ 05)
22.
phonology
:
The
description
of
sound
systems
of
particular
languages
and
how
sounds
form
patterns and function
to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)
23. phonemic contrast
:
two phonetically similar
sounds occur in the same environment and
distinguish meaning,they form phonemic
contrast.
24.
complementary
distribution
:
allophones
of
the
same
phoneme
and
they
don
’
t
distinguish
meaning but
complement each other in distribution.
25. minimal pair:
two
different forms are identical in every way except
for
one sound segment which occurs in
the same position.
26.
sequential
rules:
The
rules
to
govern
the
combination
of
sounds
in
a
particular
language.
27. assimilation rule:
The
rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a
feature of a
sequential phoneme, thus
making the two phones similar.
28.
deletion rule:
The rule that a sound is
to be deleted although it is orthographically
represented.
29.
suprasegmental features:
The phonemic
features that occur above the level of the
segments(syllable, word,
sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)
30. tone:
Tones are pitch
variations, which are caused by the differing
rates of vibration
of the vocal cords.
31. intonation:
When pitch,
stress and sound length are tied to the sentence
rather than the
word in isolation,
they
’
re collectively known
as intonation.
32. nucleus:
It refers to the major pitch change in an
intonation unit.
32.
minimal
set
:
sound
combinations
which
are
identical
in
form
except
for
the
initial
consonant
together
constitute a minimal set.
?
Chapter 3: Morphology
1.
morphology:
A
branch
of
linguistics
that
studies
the
internal
structure
of
words
and
rules
for word formation.
2. open class:
A group of
words, which contains an unlimited number of
items, and new words
can be added to it
constantly.(08C)
3. closed
class:
A group of words whose
membership is small and does not readily accept
new
members,including conjunctions
,prepositions ,.
4.
morpheme:
The
smallest
unit
of
meaning
of
a
language.
It
can
not
be
divided
without
altering
or destroying its meaning.
5.
affix:
a
letter
or
a
group
of
letter,
which
is
added
to
a
word,
and
which
changes
the
meaning
or function of the
word, including prefix, infix and suffix.
6. suffix:
The
affix, which is added to
the
end
of a word, and which usually
changes the part
of speech of a word.
7. prefix:
The affix, which
is added to the beginning of a word, and which
usually changes
the meaning of a word
to its opposite.
8. bound
morpheme:
Morpheme that can not be used
alone, and it must be combined wit others.
E.g.
–
ment.
9. free morpheme:
a morpheme
that can stand alone as a word.
（
07F
）
10.
derivational morpheme:
Bound morpheme,
which can be added to a stem to form a new word.
11.
inflectional
morpheme:
A
kind
of
morpheme,
which
are
used
to
make
grammatical
categories,
such as number, tense and case.(but
never change their syntactic category).(08F)
12.
morphological
rules:
The
ways
words
are
formed.
These
rules
determine
how
morphemes
combine
to form words.
13. compound words:
A
combination of two or more words, which functions
as a single words
14.
inflection:
the morphological process
which adjusts words by grammatical modification
to indicate such grammatical categories
as numuber,tense or pluarity. (04)
tion:
Derivation
is
a
process
of
word
formation
by
which
derivative
affixes
are
added
to an
existing form to create a word.
?
Chapter 4:
Syntax
1. syntax:
A branch of linguistics that studies how words are
combined to form sentences and
the
rules that govern the formation of sentences.
2.
category:
It
refers
to
a
group
of
linguistic
items
which
fulfill
the
same
or
similar
functions
in a particular
language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a
verb.
3. syntactic
categories:
Words can be grouped
together into a relatively small number of
classes, called syntactic categories.
4. major lexical category:
one type of word level categories, which often
assumed to be the
heads around which
phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.
5. minor lexical category:
one type of word level categories, which helps or
modifies major
lexical category.
6. phrase:
syntactic units
that are built around a certain word category are
called phrase,
the category of which is
determined by the word category around which the
phrase is built.
7. phrase
category:
the phrase that is formed by
combining with words of different
categories.(In English syntactic
analysis, four phrasal categories are NP, VP, PP,
AP.)
8. head:
The word round
which phrase is formed is termed head.
9. specifier:
The words on
the left side of the heads and attached to the top
level
are said to function as
specifiers.
10. complement:
The words on the right side of the heads are
complements.
11. phrase structure
rule:
The special type of grammatical
mechanism that regulates the
arrangement of elements that make up a
phrase is called a phrase structure rule.
12. XP rule:
In all phrases,
the specifier is attached at the top level to the
left of the
head while the complement
is attached to the right. These similarities can
be summarized as
an XP rule, in which X
stands for the head N,V,A or P.
13. X^
theory:
A theoretical
concept in transformational grammar which
restricts the form
of
context-free phrases structure rules.
14.
coordination:
Some
structures
are
formed
by
joining
two
or
more
elements
of
the
same
type
with
the
help
of
a
conjunction
(such
as
and
or
or
.
Such
phenomenon
is
known
as
coordination.)
15.
subcategorization:
The information
about a word
’
s complement is
included in the head
and termed
suncategorization. (07C)
16.
complementizer:
Words which introduce
the sentence complement are termed
complementizer.(08F/09C)
17.
complement clause:
The sentence
introduced by the complementizer is called a
complement
clause.
18.
complement phrase:
the elements,
including a complementizer and a complement clause
is
called a complement phrase.
19.
matrix
clause:
the
contrusction
in
which
the
complement
phrase
is
embedded
is
called
matrix
clause.
20.
modifier:
the
element,
which
specifies
optionally
expressible
properties
of
heads
is
called
modifier.
21. transformation
:
a special type of rule
that can move an element from one position to
another.
22.
inversion
:
the
process
of
transformation
that
moves
the
auxiliary
from
the
Infl
position
to a position to the left of the
subject, is called inversion.
23. Do
insertion
:
In the process
of forming yes-no question that does not contain
an overt
Infl, interrogative do is
inserted into an empty Infl positon to make
transformation work.
24. deep structure
:
A level of abstract
syntactic representation formed by the XP rule in
accordance with the
heads
’
s subcategorization
properties.(08F)
25.
surface
structure
:
Corresponding
to
the
final
syntactic
form
of
the
sentence
which
result
from
appropriate transformations. (05)
26.
Wh
question
:
In English, the kind of
questions beginning with a
wh
- word are called
wh
question.
27.
Wh
movement
:
The transformation that
will move
wh
phrase from its
position in deep
structure to a
position at the beginning of the sentence. This
transformation is called
wh
movement.
28.
move
α
:
a general rule
for all the movement rules, where
‘
alpha
‘
is a cover
term foe
any element that can be moved
from one place to another.
补充
29.
universal
grammar:
the
innateness
principles
and
properties
that
pertain
to
the
grammars
of
all human languages.
第十一章
ural analysis:
to
investigate the distinction of forms mes
in a language.
analysis:
how small components in
sentences go together to form larger constituents.
gmatic
relation:
the
substitutional
relation
between
a
set
of
linguistic
items,that
is,linguistic forms can be substitued
for each other in the same positon.
matic
relation:
the
relation
between
any
linguisticelements
which
are
simultaneously
present in a structure.
ate
constituent
analysis
< br>（直接成分分析法
）
is
the
technique
of
breaking
up
sentences
into word groups
by making successive binary cuttings until the
level of single words is
reached.
ntric construction:
(
向心结构或内心结构
)
One
construction whose distribution is
functionally
equivalent,
or
approaching
equivalence,
to
one
of
its
constituents.
The
typical
English endocentric
constructions are noun phrases and adjective
phrases.
（
03
）
tric construction(
离心结构或外心结构<
/p>
)
the opposite of endocentric
construction,refers to a group of
syntactically related words where none of the
words is
functionally equivalent to the
whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.
?
Chapter 5:
Semantics
1.
semantics:
Semantics can be simply
defined as the study of meaning.
2.
Semantic triangle
: It is suggested by
Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of
a word is
not
directly linked
between
a linguistic form and the object in the
real world,
but
through the mediation of concept of the
mind.
3. sense
:
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of
the linguistic form. It is the
collection
of
all
the
features
of
the
linguistic
form.
It
is
abstract
and
de-
contexturalized.
It is the aspect of
meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.
4.
reference
:
Reference
means
what
a
linguistic
form
refers
to
in
the
real,
physical
world.
It deals with the relationship between
the linguistic element and the non-linguistic
world
of experience.
5.
synonymy:
Synonymy refers to the
sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words
that are
close in meaning are called
synonyms.
6. dialectal
synonyms:
synonyms that are used in
different regional dialects.(08C)
7.
stylistic synonyms:
synonyms that
differ in style, or degree of formality.
8. collocational synonyms:
Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e.,
in the words
they go together with.
9. polysemy
:
The
same word has more than one meaning.(it can be
understood as the growth
and
development of or change in the meaning of the
words).(05/03)
10. homonymy:
Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words
having different meanings have
the same
form. i.e., different words are identical in sound
or spelling, or in both. (04)
11.
homophones:
When two words are
identical in sound, they are homophones.
12. homographs:
When two
words are identical in spelling, they are
homographs.
13. complete
homonymy:
When two words are identical
in both sound and spelling, they are
complete homonyms.
14.
hyponymy:
Hyponymy refers to the sense
relation between a more general, more inclusive
word and a more specific word.
15. superordinate:
The
word
which is more
general in meaning is called
the
superordinate
;
and
the more specific words are called
its
hyponyms;
hyponyms of the
same superordinate are
co-hyponyms
to each other.
16. co-
hyponyms:
Hyponyms of the same
superordinate are co-hyponyms.
17.
antonymy:
The term antonymy is used for
oppositeness of meaning.
18.
gradable
antonyms:
Some
antonyms
are
gradable
because
there
are
often
intermediate
forms
between the two members of a pair.(
e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there
exist
middle-aged, mature, elderly.)
19.
complementary
antonyms:
a
pair
of
antonyms
that
the
denial
of
one
member
of
the
pair
implies
the assertion of the
other. It is a matter of either one or the other.
20.
relational
opposites:
Pairs
if words that
exhibit the
reversal of a relationship between
the two items are called relational
opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---
son,
buy---sell, let---rent, above---
below.
21.
entailment:
the relationship between
two sentences where the truth of one is inferred
from the truth of the other.
E.g.
Cindy killed the dog entails the
dog is dead.
(07F)
或者
Entailment is a relation
of X entails Y,then the meaning of X is included
in Y.
22.
presupposition:
What
a
speaker
or
writer
assumes
that
the
receiver
of
the
massage
already
knows
to
make an utterance meaningful or
appropriate
。
e.g.
Some tea has already been
taken
is a presupposition of
Take some more tea
.
23. componential analysis:
an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a
set of meaning
components
or
semantic features. For example,
boy
may be
shown
as [+human] [+male] [-adult].
24. predication analysis:
a
way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to
analyze sentence
meaning.(08C)
25. predication:
In the
framework of predication analysis, the basic units
is called
predication, which is the
abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
26.
predicate:
A
predicate
is
something
said
about
an
argument
or
it
states
the
logical
relation
linking the
arguments in a sentence.
27.
argument:
An argument is a logical
participant in a predication, largely identical
with
the nominal element(s) in a
sentence.
28. selectional
restriction:
Whether a sentence is
semantically meaningful is governed by
the
rules
called
selectional
restrictions,
i.e.
constraints
on
what
lexical
items
can
go
with
what others.
29. semantic features:
The
smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be
described as
a combination of semantic
components. For example,
woman
has the semantic
features [+human]
[-male] [+adult].
(04)
30. presequence:
The
specific turn that has the function of prefiguring
the coming action.
(05)
?
Chapter 6:
Pragmatics
1.
pragmatics:
The study of how speakers
uses sentences to effect successful communication.
2. context:
It is
generally considered
as
constitued by the
knowledge shared by
the
speakers
and the
hearers. (05)
3.
sentence
meaning:
The
meaning
of
a
self-contained
unit
with
abstract
and
de-contextualized
features
in isolation from context.
4. utterance
meaning:
The meaning that a speaker
conveys by using a particular utterance in
a certain context with a certain
purpose. (03
、
08C)
5. utterance:
expression
produced in a particular context with a particular
intention.
6.
Speech
Act
Theory:
The
theory
proposed
by
John
Austin
and
deepened
by
Searle,
which
believes
that we are
performing actions when we are speaking. (05)
7. constatives:
Constatives
are statements that either state or describe, and
are thus
verifiable. (06F/07C)
8. performatives:
Performatives are sentences that
don
’
t state a fact or
describe a state,
and are not
verifiable.(07F)
9. locutionary
act:
The act of uttering
words,phrases,clauses and conveying literal
meaning
by virtue of syntax, lexicon
and phonology.
10.
illocutionary
act:
The
act
of
expressing
the
speaker
’
s
intention
and
performed
in
saying
something. (06F)
11. perlocutionary act:
The
act resulting from saying something and the
consequence or the
change brought about
by the utterance.
12.
representatives:
Stating or describing,
saying what the speaker believes to be true.
13. directives:
Trying to
get the hearer to do something.
14.
commisives:
Committing the speaker
himself to some future course of action.
15. expressives:
Expressing
feelings or attitude towards an existing state.
16.
declaration/declaratives:
Bring about
immediate changes by saying
something.(07F)
17.
cooperative Principle:
The principle
that the participants must first of all be willing
to cooperate in making conversation,
otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the
talk.
18. conversational
implicature:
The use of conversational
maxims to imply meaning during
conversation.
19.
formality:
formality refers to the
degree of how formal the words are used to express
the same purpose. Martin Joos proposed
five stages of formality, namely, intimate,
casual,
consultative, cold, and frozen.
(06F)
maxim
of
quantity:
1.
Make
your
contribution
as
informative
as
required
(for
the
current
purpose of
exchange.)2. Do not make your contribution more
informative than is required.
maxim of
quality:
1 Do not say what you believe
to be false.
2 Do not say that for
which you lack adequate evidence.
（
09C
）？
22.
The maxim of relation:
Be relevant.
23. The maxim of manner:
1
Avoid obscurity of expression.2 Avoid ambiguity.3
Be belief.4 Be
orderly.(08F)
?
Chapter 7: Language Change
1.
historical
linguistics:
A
subfield
of
linguistics
that
study
language
change
over
a
period
of time.
2. coinage:
A new word can
be coined outright to fit some purpose. (03)
3. blending:
A blend is a
word formed by combining parts of other words.
4. clipping:
Clipping refers
to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.
5.
borrowing
(load
words):
When
different
culture
come
into
contact,
words
are
often
borrowed
from one language
to another. It is also called.
6.
back
formation:
New
words
may
be
coined
from
already
existing
words
by
subtracting
an
affix
thought to be part of
the old word. Such words are called back-
formation.
7. functional
shift
/Conversion/
zero
derivation
.:
Words may shift
from one part of speech to
another
without the addition of affixes.
8. acronyms:
Acronyms are
words derived from the initials of several words.
9. protolanguage:
The
original form of a language family, which has
ceased to exist.
10. Language
family:
A group of historically related
languages that have developed from a
common ancestral language.
ic broading(widening of
meaning)
:when the meaning of a word
becomes broader,that
word means
everything it used to mean and then more.(08C)
al borrowing: speakers of a particular
language may borrow a rule from one part of
grammar and apply it generally to
lesson the burdon on memeory and reduce the number
of
exceptional or irregular morphemes.
?
Chapter 8: Language And
Society
1.
sociolinguistics:
The subfield of
linguistics that study language variation and
language
use in social contexts.
或者
It study the relation
between language and society,between the uses of
language and the
social structures in
which the users of language live.
2. speech community:
A group
of people who form a community and share the same
language or
a particular variety of a
language. (05)
(GENERAL
LINGUISTICS)
Sociolinguistists
define it
as a group of people who do in fact have the
opportunity to
interact with each other
and who share not just a single language with its
related varieties
but also attitudes
toward linguistic norms.
3. speech
varieties:
It refers to any
distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker
or
a group of speakers.
4.
regional dialect:
A variety of language
used by people living in the same geographical
region.
5.
sociolect:
the linguistic variety
characteristic of a particular social class and
caused
by the separation brought about
by different social conditions.
6.
registers
:
The
type
of
language
which
is
selected
as
appropriate
to
the
type
of
situation.
7.
idiolect
:
A
person
’
s
dialect
of
an
individual
speaker
that
combines
elements,
regarding
regional, social, gender and age
variations. (04)
8. linguistic
reportoire
:
The totality of
linguistic varieties possessed by an individual
constitutes his linguistic
repertoire.(07F)
9.
register
theory
:
A
theory
proposed
by
Halliday,
who
believed
that
three
social
variables
determine the
register, namely, field /tenor/mode of discourse.
10. field of discourse
:
.
what
’
s going on: to the area
of operartion of the language
activity,the purpose and subject matter
of the communicatiion.
11. tenor of
discourse:
It refers to the role of
relationship in the situation in question:
who the participants in the
communication groups are and in what relationship
they stand to
each other.
12. mode of discourse:
It
refers to the means of communication and it is
concerned with how
communication is
carried out.
13.
standard
dialect:
A
superimposed
,socially
prestigious
dialect
of
a
language;it
’
s
usually
based on the speech
and writing of educated native speakers .
14. formality: differences in the
degree of formality is determined by social
variables.
According to
Martin Joos, there are five
stages of
formality,including
intimate,
casual,
consultative, formal,frozen
.(06F)
15. Pidgin:
a special
language varity that mixes or blends languages and
is used by people
who speak different
languages for restricted purposes.(such as
trading.)
16.
Creole
:
when
a
pidgin
has
become
the
primary
language
and
acquired
as
a
native
language
of a speech
community,it
’
s creole.
17.
bilingualism
:
The
use
of
two
different
languages
side
by
side
with
each
having
a
different
role
to play, and language switching occurs when the
situation changes.(07C)
18. diaglossia
:
A sociolinguistic
situation in which two different varieties of
language
co-exist in a speech
community, each having a definite role to play.
19.
Lingua
Franca
:
A
variety
of
language
that
serves
as
a
medium
of
communication
among
groups
of people, who speak
different native languages or dialects
20. code-switching:
the
alternation between two or more languages,language
varieties or
registers in communication
used by bilingual
speakers.(04)
?
?
Chapter 9: Language And
Culture
1. culture
:
The total way of life of a
person, including the patterns of belief, customs,
objects, institutions, techniques, and
language that characterizes the life of human
community.
2. discourse
community
:
It refers to the
common ways that members of some social group use
language to meet their needs.
3. acculturation
:
A process in which members
of one culture group adopt the belief and
behaviors of another group.
4.
Sapir-Whorf
Hypothesis
:
language
filters
people
’
s
perception
and
the
way
they
categorize
experience,the
interdependence of language and thought is Sapir-
Whorf Hypothesis.
5. linguistic
relativity
:
different
language offer people difference ways of
expressing
the world around,they think
and speak differently. (06C)
6.
linguistic determinism:
the
language, to some extent, determines
the way in which we view
and think
about the world around us. (06C)
7.
denotative meaning:
It refers to the
literal meaning, which can be found in a
dictionary.
Denotation
is a
straightforward, literal meaning of the word every
member of the language
speaking
community will agree on.
可以互换
8.
connotative meaning:
The association of
a word, apart from its primary meaning,showing
people
’
s emotions
& attitudes toward what the word refers
to.
Connotation
is not the basic meaing of the word but some
emotive or evaluative meaings
associated with the word by individual
language users in their
mind.
可以互换
9.
iconic meaning:
The image of a word
invoked to people.
10.
metaphors:
A
figure
of
speech,
in
which
no
function
words
like
like,
as
are
used.
Something
is described by stating another thing
with which it can be compared.
11.
euphemism: a word or phrase that replace a taboo
word or is used to avoid reference to
certain acts or subjects, e.g.
powder room
for
toilet.
12.
cultural overlap:
The situation between
two societies due to some similarities in the
natural environment and psychology of
human being
13. cultural
diffusion:
Through communication, some
elements of culture A enter culture B
and become part of culture B, thus
bringing about cultural diffusion. (05/03)
14. cultural imperialism:
The situation of increasing cultural diffusion all
over the
world.(06C)
15.
linguistics imperialism:
a kind of kind
of linguicism ,the promulgation of global
ideologies through the world-wide
expansion of one language. (06C)
16.
linguistic
nationalism:
In
order to protect the purity of their
language, some countries
have adopted
special language policy.
It
’
s called linguistic
nationalism.
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