-
Islamic law
Islamic
law is a particularly instructive example of
“sacred law”. Islamic law is a phenomenon so
different from all other
forms of law,
notwithstanding, of course, a considerable and
inevitable number of coincidences with one or the
other of
them as far as subject matter
and positive enactments are concerned that its
study is indispensable in order to appreciate
adequately the full range of possible
legal phenomena. Even the two other
representatives of sacred law that are
historically
and geographically nearest
to it, Jewish law and Roman Catholic canon law,
are perceptibly different.
Both
Jewish
law
and
canon
law
are
more
uniform
than
Islamic
law.
Though
historically
there
is
a
discernible
break
between Jewish law of the sovereign
state of ancient Israel and of the Diaspora (the
dispersion of Jewish people after the
conquest of Israel), the spirit of the
legal matter in later parts of the Old Testament
is very close to that of the Talmud, one
of the primary codifications of Jewish
law in the Diaspora. Islam, on the other hand,
represented a radical breakaway from
the Arab paganism that preceded it;
Islamic law is the result of an examination, from
a religious angle, of legal subject matter
that was far from uniform, comprising
as it did the various components of the laws of
pre-Islamic Arabia and numerous legal
elements taken over from the non Arab
peoples of the conquered territories. All this was
unified by being subjected to the
same
kind of religious scrutiny, the impact of which
varied greatly, being almost nonexistent in some
fields, and in others
originating novel
institutions. This central duality of legal
subject matter and religious norm is additional to
the variety of
legal ethical and ritual
rules that is typical of sacred law.
In its relation to the secular state,
Islamic law differed from both Jewish and canon
law. Jewish law was buttressed by
the
cohesion of the community, reinforced by pressure
from outside: its rules are the direct expression
of this feeling of
cohesion, tending
toward the accommodation of dissent. Canon and
Islamic law, on the contrary, were dominated by
the
dualism of religion and
state
，
where the
state was not, in contrast with Judaism, an alien
power but the political expression
of
the same religion. But the conflict between state
and religion took different forms; in Christianity
it appeared as the
struggle for
political power on the part of a tightly organized
ecclesiastical hierarchy, and canon law was one of
its political
weapons. Islamic law, on
the other hand
，
was never supported by and organized
institution; consequently there never
developed an overt trial of strength.
There merely existed discordance between
application of the sacred law and many of
the regulations framed by Islamic
states; this antagonism varied according to place
and time. (NO7-1-B-L)
1.
The author’s
purpose in comparing Islamic law to Jewish law and
canon law is most probably to:
(A)
contend that
traditional legal subject matter does not play a
large role in Islamic law.
(B)
Support his
argument that Islamic law is a unique kind of
legal phenomenon.
(C)
Emphasize the
variety of forms that can all be considered sacred
law.
(D)
Provide an example of how he believes
comparative institutional study should be
undertaken.
(E)
Argue that geographical and historical
proximity does not necessarily lead to parallel
institutional development.
2.
The passage
provides information to answer which of the
following questions?
(A)
Does Islamic
law depend on sources other than Arab legal
principles?
(B)
What secular practices of Islamic
states conflicted with Islamic law?
(C)
Are Jewish
law and canon law the most typical examples of
sacred law?
(D)
Is Jewish law more uniform than canon
law?
(E)
What characterized Arab law of the pre-
Islamic era?
3.
According to
the passage, which of the following statements
about sacred law is correct?
(A)
The various
systems of sacred law originated in a limited
geographical area.
(B)
The various
systems of sacred law have had marked influence on
one another.
(C)
Systems of sacred law usually rely on a
wide variety of precedents.
(D)
Systems of
sacred law generally contain prescriptions
governing diverse aspects of human
activity.
(E)
Systems of sacred law function most
effectively in communities with relatively small
populations.
4.
It can be
inferred from the passage that the application of
Islamic law in Islamic states has
(A)
Systematically been opposed by groups
who believe it is contrary to their
interest
(B)
Suffered irreparably from the lack of
firm institutional backing
(C)
Frequently
been at odds with the legal activity of government
institutions.
(D)
Remain unaffected by the political
forces operating alongside it.
(E)
Benefited
from the fact that it never experienced a direct
confrontation with the state.
5.
Which of the following most accurately
describes the organization of the
passage?
(A)
A universal principle is advanced and
then discussed in relation to a particular
historical phenomenon
(B)
A
methodological innovation is suggested and then
examples of its efficacy are provided.
(C)
A traditional
interpretation is questioned and then modified to
include new data.
(D)
A general
opinion is expressed and then supportive
illustrations are advanced.
(E)
A
controversial viewpoint is presented and then both
supportive evidence and contradictory evidence are
cited.
6.
The
passage
implies
that
the
relationship
of
Islamic,
Jewish,
and
canon
law
is
correctly
described
by
which
of
the
following statements?
I.
Because each
constitutes an example of sacred law, they
necessarily share some features.
II.
They each
developed in reaction to the interference of
secular political institutions.
III.
The
differences among them result partly from their
differing emphasis on purely ethical
rules.
(A)
I only
(B)
III
only
(C)
I and II only
(D)
II and III
only
(E)
I, II, and III
7.
The passage
suggests that canon law differs from Islamic law
in that only canon law
(A)
contains
prescriptions that nonsacred legal systems might
regard as properly legal
(B)
concerns
itself with the duties of a person in regard to
the community as a whole
(C)
was affected
by the tension of the conflict between religion
and state
(D)
developed in a political environment
that did not challenge its fundamental
existence
(E)
played a role in the direct
confrontation between institutions vying for
power
8.
All of the
following statements about the development of
Islamic law are implied in the passage
EXCEPT:
(A)
Pre-Islamic legal principles were
incorporated into Islamic law with widely
differing degrees of change.
(B)
Diverse legal
elements were joined together through the
application of a purely religious
criterion.
(C)
Although some of the sources of Islamic
law were pagan, its integrity as a sacred law was
not compromised by their
incorporation.
(D)
There was a
fundamental shared characteristic in all pre-
Islamic legal matter taken over by Islamic
law.
(E)
Although Islam emerged among the Arabs,
Islamic law was influenced by ethnically diverse
elements.
Nitrogen Fixation
Two
relatively recent independent
developments
stand behind
the current major research effort on
nitrogen fixation,
the
process
by
which
bacteria
symbiotically
render
leguminous
plants
independent
of
nitrogen
fertilizer.
The
one
development has
been the rapid, sustained increase in
the price of
nitrogen
fertilizer. The other development has
been
the
rapid
growth of knowledge of and technical
sophistication in genetic engineering.
Fertilizer
prices, largely
tied to the price
of
natural
gas,
huge
amounts
of
which
go
into
the
manufacture
of
fertilizer,
will
continue
to
represent
an
enormous
and
escalating
economic
burden
on
modern
agriculture,
spurring
the
search
for
alternatives
to
synthetic fertilizers.
And
genetic engineering is just the sort
of
fundamental breakthrough
that opens up prospects
of
wholly novel alternatives. One
such
novel idea is
that of
inserting into the chromosomes of
plants
discrete genes that
are not a part of the plants' natural
constitution: specifically, the idea of
inserting
into nonleguminous
plants the genes, if they can be
identified and isolated,
that fit the leguminous
plants to be hosts for nitrogenfixing
bacteria.
Hence, the
intensified research on legumes.
Nitrogen fixation is a
process in which certain
bacteria use atmospheric nitrogen gas,
which green
plants cannot
directly
utilize, to produce
ammonia,
a nitrogen compound
plants can use. It is one of
nature's great ironies that the
availability of
nitrogen in the soil
frequently sets an upper limit on
plant growth even though the plants'
leaves are
bathed in a sea
of
nitrogen gas. The
leguminous
plants-among them
crop plants such as soybeans,
peas, alfalfa, and clover-have solved
the
nitrogen
supply problem by entering into a
symbiotic relationship with the bacterial genus
Rhizobium; as a
matter of
fact,
there is a specific strain of
Rhizobium for each species of legume. The host
plant
supplies the bacteria
with food and a
protected
habitat and receives surplus ammonia in
exchange.
Hence, legumes can
thrive in nitrogen-depleted soil.
Unfortunately, most of the
major food cropsincluding maize, wheat, rice, and
potatoes-cannot.
On the
contrary, many
of
the
highyielding
hybrid
varieties
of
these
food
crops
bred
during
the
Green
Revolution
of
the
1960's
were
selected
specifically
to
give high yields in response to generous
applications of nitrogen fertilizer. This poses an
additional,
formidable
challenge to plant geneticists: they
must
work on enhancing
fixation within the existing symbioses. Unless
they succeed, the
yield gains of
the
Green Revolution will be
largely lost even if the
genes in legumes that equip those
plants to enter
into a
symbiosis with nitrogen fixers are
identified
and isolated, and
even if the transfer of those gene
complexes, once they are
found, becomes possible.
The overall task looks forbidding, but
the stakes
are too high not
to undertake it. (NO-7-2-B-L)
20. The primary purpose of
the passage is to
(A) expose
the fragile nature of the foundations on which the
high yields of modern agriculture rest
(B) argue that genetic engineering
promises to lead to even higher yields than are
achievable with synthetic fertilizers
(C) argue that the capacity for
nitrogen-fixing symbioses is transferable to
nonleguminous plants
(D)
explain the reasons for and the objectives of
current research on nitrogen-fixing
symbioses
(E) describe the
nature of the genes that regulate the symbiosis
between legumes and certain bacteria
21. According to the
passage, there is currently no strain of Rhizobium
that can enter into a symbiosis with
(A) alfalfa
(B)
clover
(C) maize
(D) peas
(E)
soybeans
22. The
passage implies that which of the following is
true of the bacterial genus Rhizobium?
(A) Rhizobium bacteria are found
primarily in nitrogen-depleted soils.
(B) Some strains of Rhizobium are not
capable of entering into a symbiosis with any
plant.
(C) Newly bred
varieties of legumes cannot be hosts to any strain
of Rhizobium.
(D) Rhizobium
bacteria cannot survive outside the protected
habitat provided by host plants.
(E) Rhizobium bacteria produce some
ammonia for their own purposes.
23.
It
can
be
inferred
from
the
passage
that
which
of
the
following
was
the
most
influential
factor
in
bringing
about
intensified research on nitrogen
fixation?
(A) The high
yields of the Green Revolution
(B) The persistent upward surge in
natural gas prices
(C) The
variety of Rhizobium strains
(D) The mechanization of modern
agriculture
(E) The
environmental ill effects of synthetic
fertilizers
24.
Which of the following situations is most closely
analogous to the situation described by the author
as one of nature's
great ironies (lines
28-32)?
(A) That of a farmer
whose crops have failed because the normal
midseason rains did not materialize and no
preparations
for irrigation had been
made
(B) That of a long-
distance runner who loses a marathon race because
of a wrong turn that cost him twenty
seconds
(C) That of
shipwrecked sailors at sea in a lifeboat, with one
flask of drinking water to share among
them
(A) That of a motorist
who runs out of gas a mere five miles from the
nearest gas station
(E) That
of travelers who want to reach their destination
as fast and as cheaply as possible, but find that
cost increases as
travel speed
increases
25.
According to the passage, the ultimate goal of the
current research on nitrogen fixation is to
develop
(A) strains of
Rhizobium that can enter into symbioses with
existing varieties of wheat, rice, and other
nonlegnumes
(B) strains of
Rhizobium that produce more ammonia for leguminous
host plants than do any of the strains presently
known
(C) varieties of
wheat, rice, and other nonlegumes that yield as
much as do existing varieties, but require less
nitrogen
(D) varieties of
wheat, rice, and other nonlegumes that maintain an
adequate symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-
fixing
bacteria and produce high
yields
(E) high-yielding
varieties of wheat, rice, and other nonlegumes
that are genetically equipped to fix nitrogen from
the air
without the aid of
bacteria
26. The
author regards the research program under
discussion as
(A) original
and extensive but ill-defined as to
method
(B) necessary and
ambitious but vulnerable to failure
(C) cogent and worthwhile but severely
under-funded
(D)
prohibitively expensive but conceptually
elegant
(E) theoretically
fascinating but practically useless
27. Most nearly parallel,
in its fundamental approach, to the research
program described in the passage would be a
program
designed to
(A) achieve greater frost resistance in
frost tender food plants by means of selective
breeding, thereby expanding those
plants' area of cultivation
(B) achieve greater yields from food
plants by interplanting crop plants that are
mutually beneficial
(C) find
inexpensive
and abundant
natural
substances
that
could,
without
reducing
yields,
be
substituted
for expensive
synthetic fertilizers
(D) change the genetic makeup of food
plants that cannot live in water with high
salinity, using genes from plants adapted
to salt water
(E)
develop,
through
genetic
engineering,
a
genetic
configuration
for
the
major
food
plants
that
improves
the
storage
characteristics of
the edible portion of the plants
Remembrance of Things
Past
Many literary
detectives have pored over a great puzzle
concerning the writer Marcel Proust: what happened
in 1909?
How
did
Contre
Saint-Beuve,
an
essay
attacking
the
methods
of
the
critic
Saint-Beuve,
turn
into
the
start
of
the
novel
Remembrance of Things
Past? A recently published letter from Proust to
the editor Vallette confirms that Fallois, the
editor
of the 1954 edition of Contre
Saint-Beuve, made an essentially correct guess
about the relationship of the essay to the novel.
Fallois proposed that Proust had tried
to begin a novel in 1908, abandoned it for what
was to be a long demonstration of
Saint-Beuve's blindness to the real
nature of great writing, found the essay giving
rise to personal memories and fictional
developments, and allowed these to take
over in a steadily developing novel.
Draft passages in Proust's 1909
notebooks indicate that the transition from essay
to novel began in Contre Saint-Beuve,
when Proust introduced several examples
to show the powerful influence that involuntary
memory exerts over the creative
imagination. In effect, in trying to
demonstrate that the imagination is more profound
and less submissive to the intellect
than Saint-Beuve assumed, Proust
elicited vital memories of his own and, finding
subtle connections between them, began
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