管理教育的未来：创业教育外文文献翻译中英文

管理教育的未来：创业教育外文翻译中英文

2019-2020

英文

The future of management education: The role of entrepreneurship education and

junior enterprises

Joao Almeida

，

Ana DiasDaniel

，

Claudia Figueiredo

Abstract

This study assesses the effect of entrepreneurship education and the participation

in

junior

enterprises

(JA)

on

the

entrepreneurial

attitudes

and

intentions

of

higher

education students.

A self-report instrument

was answered by 139 management

and

economics students enrolled in Portuguese universities. The results show that students

enrolled in JEs show higher levels of perceived behavioural control than students not

involved in such extra- curricular activity. Additionally, students enrolled both in JEs

and entrepreneurship education reported a higher entrepreneurial intention than those

students that are only members of a JE. These findings suggest that deeper integration

of

extra-curricular

activities

and

entrepreneurship

education

on

management

education curricula is crucial for the development of dynamic managerial capabilities.

Moreover, it was observed that extra- curricular activities, like participating in a junior

enterprise,

complement

rather

than

substitute

entrepreneurship

education.

Several

suggestions to make management education more impactful on students’ manager

ial

capabilities and skills are also provided.

Keywords:

Management

education,

Entrepreneurial

education,

Entrepreneurial

intention, Junior enterprises, Future skills, Practical education

Introduction

In

an

increasingly

globalised,

fast-changing

and

uncertain

environment,

organizations

must

be

able

to

make

decisions

quickly

to

adapt

constantly

to

new

market realities. To face these challenges, the role of managers is crucial due to their

strong

influence

on

organizations'

life

and

strategy

(Anderson,

Hibbert,

Mason,

&

Rivers, 2018). Therefore, managers have to have a set of skills and knowledge to be

capable

of

answering

not

only

to

organizations'

needs,

but

also

to

contribute

effectively

to

society's

transformation

through

their

business

practices

(Hillmann,

1

Duchek, Meyr, & Guenther, 2018; Warwick, Wyness, & Conway, 2017).

Management

education

(ME)

is

critical

for

providing

this

set

of

skills

and

knowledge,

not

only

to

current

managers,

through

lifelong

learning

initiatives,

but,

more importantly, to future managers so that they can be better equipped to deal with

upcoming

challenges

(Pina

e

Cunha,

Vieira

da

Cunha,

&

Cabral-Cardoso,

2004; Sharma,

2017).

However,

ME

has

been

criticized

for

focusing

too

much

on

theoretical

content

and

not

promoting

the

development

of

students'

skills

and

competencies (Hillmann et al., 2018), or for being too simplistic in the approach when

compared to the reality of companies’ context (

Pina e Cunha et al., 2004). Therefore, a

broader

understanding

of

concepts,

combined

with

collaborative

and

practical

teaching

methodologies,

is

essential

for

developing

a

more

effective

ME

that

can

respond to the needs of the future managers and to the societal challenges that affect

the life of firms (Anderson et al., 2018).

Some

of

the

skills

needed

by

future

managers

include

alertness,

opportunity

recognition,

creative

problem

solving,

pro-activity

and

resilience

(Gebauer,

2013; Hillmann et al., 2018) which are skills associated to entrepreneurial behaviour,

suggesting that a closer integration between the development of entrepreneurial skills

and ME may contribute for improving ME learning outcomes.

The importance of entrepreneurship education (EE) has been recognized by both

researchers

(Gibb,

1987; Kuratko,

2005; Pittaway,

Hannon,

Gibb,

&

Thompson,

2009; Vazquez,

Lanero,

Gutierrez,

&

Garcia,

2011)

and

policymakers

(European

Commission, 2012, 2006; Wilson, 2008). Despite the extensive research on this topic,

there

are

still

doubts

regarding

which

approaches,

contents,

and

methods

are

more

effect

ive

for

developing

students’

entrepreneurial

skills

and

behaviours

(

Blenker,

Korsgaard, & Neergaard, 2011;

Egerová, Eger, & Mi?

í

k, 2018; Fayolle, 2005). Many

authors

suggest

the

use

of

new

teaching

methodologies

in

EE

courses

(Daniel,

2016; European Commission, 2008), being the learning-by-doing or experience-based

learning

two

of

the

more

relevant

methodologies

explored

(Gonzá

lez,

Castro,

Gonzá

lez,

&

Cendó

n,

2016; Thompson,

Scott,

&

Gibson,

2010).

Extra-curricular

activities,

such

as

junior

enterprises

(JEs),

can

provide

the

adequate

context

for

2

implementing

these

methodologies

(European

Commission,

2012; Pittaway,

Rodriguez-Falcon,

&

King,

2011; Thompson

et

al.,

2010).

JEs

are

non- profit

organizations, which are implemented and managed exclusively by higher education

students

and

that

aim

at

providing

services

to

external

stakeholders.

By

doing

so,

those

organization

support

learning-by-doing

experiences

which

enable

the

consolidation

of

theoretical

knowledge,

fostering

an

entrepreneurial

spirit

and

enhancing the employability of their members (JADE, 2017).

Our contribution to this debate is to provide shreds of evidence regarding the role

of formal

and informal

entrepreneurial

learning

initiatives,

such as entrepreneurship

education

and

the

participation

in

JEs,

in

the

development

of

an

entrepreneurial

behaviour among ME students, through assessing students’ entrepreneurial intention

(EI)

and

its

antecedents.

Many

studies

show

that

EI,

and

its

consequent

entrepreneurial behaviour, can be enhanced through the exposure to EE or in a context

where students experience entrepreneurial activities, such as in the case of JEs (Morris,

Webb, Fu, & Singhal, 2013; Schelfhout, Bruggeman, & Maeyer, 2016). Therefore, it

is

relevant

to

understand

how

EE

courses

and

participation

in

extra-curricular

activities,

such

as

JEs,

can

improve

entrepreneurial

skills

and

behaviour

(Binks,

Starkey, & Mahon, 2006).

The

main

objective

of

this

paper

is

to

contribute

to

the

design

of

future

ME

programs that better equip students with the skills needed to deal with future business

challenges, through understanding the relevance of entrepreneurial teaching initiatives

for the development

of

ME students’ entrepreneurial

intention and behaviour. Thus,

this

paper

aims

to

answer

the

following

research

question:

Is

the

participation

in

entrepreneurship

training

courses

and/or

in

JEs

important

for

the

development

of

entrepreneurial behaviour of management students?

The future of skills: the case of future managers

Challenges

related

with

the

increasing

globalisation,

demographic

and

technological

changes,

as

well

as

political

and

economic

uncertainty,

and

environmental

sustainability

are

surely

shaping

the

future

of

our

society

(Bakhshi,

Downing,

Osborne,

&

Schneider,

2017).

To

overcome

those

challenges

it

will

be

3

necessary,

on

the

one

hand,

a

constant

adaptation

and

resilience

of

citizens,

which

reflects the need for developing new skills and knowledge, especially among young

people

that

soon

will

enter

the

labour

market

(V

olkmann

et

al.,

2009).

In

fact,

as

mentioned in the report The Future of Skills: Employment in 2030, future labour force

should

be

equipped

with

a

set

of

new

skills,

such

as

innovative

problem-solving

practices, as well as the capacity to create new alternatives, and to detect changes or

new opportunities in the environment (Bakhshi et al., 2017). Also, competencies like

long-term visioning, critical

thinking, and interpersonal

skills

are considered crucial

requirements to future job performance (Hillmann et al., 2018; Schumacher & Mayer,

2018).

On

the

other

hand,

organizations

need

to

become

increasingly

flexible

to

anticipate,

adapt

to,

and/or

rapidly

recovering

from

negative

events

that

may

occur

(Lengnick-Hall, Beck, & Lengnick-Hall, 2011), as well as to take advantage of market

opportunities that may arise. In this case, managers will have a greater responsibility

due

to

their

strong

influence

on

organizations'

strategy

(Anderson

et

al.,

2018).

Managers are key actors in promoting the organization's strategic orientation (Adner

&

Helfat,

2003; Carmeli,

Friedman,

&

Tishler,

2013),

resilience

(Gebauer,

2013; Hillmann

et

al.,

2018; Shin,

Taylor,

&

Seo,

2012)

and

innovation

(Kearney,

Harrington, & Kelliher, 2018), since they possess to some extent dynamic managerial

capabilities

which

enable

them

to

create

or

modify

the

firm's

resource

base

and

competencies

(Helfat

&

Martin,

2015).

Several

studies

have

related

managers'

dynamic

managerial

capabilities

with

the

ability

of

firms

to

adapt

and

strive

under

conditions

of

change

(e.g. Boyd,

Haynes,

Hitt,

&

Ketchen,

2012; Peteraf

&

Reed,

2007).

A

study

conducted

by Buil- Fabregà

,

Alonso-Almeida,

and

Bagur- Femení

as

(2017) show

that

managers'

individual

dynamic

capabilities

help

them

to

detect

changes in the market earlier and to promote business sustainability. Thus, firms with

strong dynamic capabilities are intensely entrepreneurial, which means that “they not

only

adapt

to

business

ecosystems,

but

also

shape

them

through

innovation

and

through collaboration with other enterprises, entities, and

institutions” (

Teece, 2007, p.

1319).

According

to Adner

and

Helfat

(2003),

dynamic

managerial

capabilities

are

4

rooted

in

three

underlying

factors:

managerial

cognition,

managerial

social

capital,

and

managerial

human

capital.

The

first

factor,

managerial

cognition,

is

related

to

managerial beliefs and mental models that serve as a basis for decision making (Walsh,

1995).

In

turn,

managerial

social

capital

results

from

social

relationships

and

can

confer

influence,

control,

and

power

(Adler

&

Kwon,

2002).

Finally,

managerial

human capital refers to skills acquired through education and training, as well as prior

work experience (Khanna, Jones, & Boivie, 2014). These factors may act combined or

separately

to

influence

the

strategic

and

operational

decisions

of

managers.

For

instance,

education,

training,

and

work

experience

affect

also

managerial

cognition

(Corrê

a,

Bueno,

Kato,

&

Silva,

2018),

and

managerial

social

capital.

Thus,

management

education

(ME)

plays

a

central

role

in

equipping

students

with

the

dynamic

managerial

capabilities

needed

for

them

to

succeed

as

future

managers

(Almoharby, 2008; Hillmann et al., 2018).

ME has been criticized, during the last decades, for failing in providing students

with

the

learning

experiences

that

foster

the

development

of

new

competencies

(Gebauer, 2013; Hillmann et al., 2018; Waddock, 1991). Mintzberg and Gosling (2002,

p. 65) point out that business schools educate “managers with a 1908 product that uses

a

1950

strategy”

which

highlights

the

traditional

teaching

app

roach

followed

in

current

ME

programs.

Other

authors

argue

that

traditional

ME

focus

too

much

on

what

content

to

teach

instead

of

what

skills

and

capabilities

students

need

to

learn

(Hillmann et al., 2018).

New

teaching

approaches,

curricula,

contents

or

methodologies,

are

being

currently used and tested in ME to equip future managers not only with the theoretical

content

but

also

with

new

competencies

(Schumacher

&

Mayer,

2018).

For

instance, Schumacher and Mayer (2018) propose a workshop to teach design thinking

principles

supporting

that

this

will

“enable

future

managers

to

become

creative

designers

and

understand

turbulent

contexts

(…)

as

spaces

for

innovation”

(p.517). Hillmann

et

al.

(2018) propose

a

lecture

on

scenario

planning,

finding

a

positive influence on resilience capabilities and superior learning outcomes compared

to other business students that did not participate in the lecture. Also, the search for

5

enablers

(such

as

entrepreneurship

education,

institutional

support,

etc.)

of

business

studen

ts’

entrepreneurial

behaviour

and

skills

has

been

discussed

and

reported

by

many authors (Maresch, Harms, Kailer, & Wimmer-Wurm, 2016; Misoska, Dimitrova,

& Mrsik, 2016).

Nevertheless,

the

use

of

entrepreneurial

approaches

in

ME

is

raising

interest

among

researchers.

As

an

example, Binks

et

al.

(2006) proposed

a

creative

problem-solving framework as an integrative learning approach, transversal to various

contexts, which captures the knowledge, behaviour and various thinking styles needed

at

different

stages

and

contexts.

These

authors

pointed

out

that

entrepreneurship

education (EE) should be included in ME to foster the development of competencies

that

are

most

relevant

to

future

managers,

not

only

for

managing

companies

or

institutions but also for the creation of new businesses (Binks et al., 2006).

Despite the increasing interest, it is necessary a better understanding on how to

make

ME

more

impactful

to

students,

increasing

their

managerial

human

capital,

managerial

cognition,

and,

therefore,

respond

to

the

needs

of

future

managers

(Anderson et al., 2018).

Entrepreneurial competencies and education

Entrepreneurship has been acknowledged as the main driver of economic growth,

through

fostering

innovation

and

employment

(Kuratko,

2005; Obino

Mokaya,

Namusonge,

&

Sikalieh,

2012).

Nevertheless,

there

is

a

lack

of

consensus

in

the

literature

regarding

the

definition

of

entrepreneurship,

which

is

mainly

due

to

its

multidimensional

nature.

As

a

consequence,

researchers

have

different

perspectives

when

addressing

this

concept,

and

end

up

at

defining

it

in

different

ways

(Obino

Mokaya

et

al.,

2012).

One

of

the

most

consensual

perspectives

is

the

one

that

considers entrepreneurship as a process of value creation, more than mere businesses

creation

(Kuratko,

2005).

The

Danish

Foundation

for

Entrepreneurship

&

Young

Enterprise in 2012 develop a definition that has been used since then by the European

Commission:

“entrepreneurship

is

when

you

act

upon

opportunities

and

ideas

and

transform

them

into

value

for

others.

The

value

that

is

created

can

be

financial,

cultural, or social” (

Moberg, Fosse, Hoffman, & Junge, 2015, p. 14).

6

Since

an

early

stage

of

concept

development,

it

became

clear

that

entrepreneurship can be taught (Kuratko, 2005) and, due to its increasing importance,

training

and

educating

people

in

this

field

has

become

a

priority

in

the

last

decade

(Lyons

&

Zhang,

2018).

This

effort

has

been

a

way

of

developing

entrepreneurial

competencies

and

promoting

students’

entrepreneurial

behaviour

(

European

Commission, 2012; Kuratko, 2005; Pittaway et al., 2009).

Entrepreneurial competencies are defined as knowledge, skills and attitudes that

are key for starting or growing a business (Mitchelmore & Rowley, 2010) and, in a

broader

perspective,

to

“perform

the

entrepreneu

rial

job

of

new

value

creation”(

L acké

us,

2015,

p.

12),

as

well

as

to

successfully

introduce

and

manage

change.

This

has

led

to

increasing

demand

for

entrepreneurial

skills

by

employers

since it can add value to organizations (Binks et al., 2006).

To answer this increasing demand for entrepreneurial competencies, many efforts

are

being

made

to

map

the

knowledge,

skills,

and

attitudes

that

make

someone

entrepreneurial,

being a

good example of this

the EntreComp

framework developed

by

the

European

Commission

in

2016

(Bacigalupo,

Kampylis,

Punie,

&

Van

den

Brande, 2016). EntreComp is a framework which stresses entrepreneurship as a key

competence

for

lifelong

learning,

and

it

defines

specific

actions

to

improve

the

entrepreneurial

capacity

of

European

citizens

and

organizations.

In

this

framework,

vision,

creativity,

ability

to

spot

opportunities

and

taking

initiative

or

coping

with

uncertainty and risk, are some of the skills crucial for entrepreneurs (Bacigalupo et al.,

2016).

Other

authors

had

also

suggested

different

entrepreneurial

competencies

frameworks (Bird, 1995; Man & Lau, 2005; Mitchelmore & Rowley, 2010; Plumly et

al., 2008).

These

skills

are

rooted

in

personal

background

and

can

be

enhanced

through

work,

training

or

education.

According

to Welsh,

Tullar,

and

Nemati

(2016),

the

exposure

to

EE

enhances

students'

skills,

like

flexibility,

adaptability,

resilience,

preparing them to overcomefailure. Also, Lacké

us (2015) argues that the main goal of

EE is the development of entrepreneurial skills . Finally, EE also helps to bridge the

gap

between

entrepreneurial

attitudes

and

actions

(Geldhof

et

al.,

2013; Rauch

&

7

Hulsink,

2015),

through

having

a

positive

impact

on

entrepreneurial

intention

(EI),

which

is

the

individual's

propensity

to

start

a

new

venture

that

predict

the

actual

entrepreneurial behaviour (Krueger & Carsrud, 1993). These effects have fuelled the

research in this field, as well as boosted the implementation of EE programs in many

educational institutions worldwide (Egerová

et al., 2018; Kü

ttim, Kallaste, Venesaar,

& Kiis, 2014).

Despite

the

importance

of

EE

being

recognized

by

both

researchers

(Gibb,

1987; Kuratko,

2005; Pittaway

et

al.,

2009; Vazquez

et

al.,

2011)

and

politics

(European

Commission,

2006, 2012; Wilson,

2008),

there

is

still

the

need

to

clarify

the

best

approaches,

contents

and

pedagogical

methods

to

be

used

(Blenker

et

al.,

2011; Egerová

et

al.,

2018; Fayolle,

2005).

Some

perspectives

highlight

the

importance of learning initiatives where students experience and perform real work to

enhance

entrepreneurial

skills

and

behaviour

(Daniel,

2016; Morris

et

al.,

2013; Schelfhout

et

al.,

2016).

As

an

example, Thompson,

Scott,

and

Gibson's

(2010) conceptual

model

suggest

that

experience-based

learning

leads

to

higher

competency-building

outcomes,

increase

students'

professional

network,

and

better

preparing them for an entrepreneurial career.

Other authors argue that EE is a process of learning-by-doing (Kariv, Cisneros, &

Ibanescu,

2018; Papadaki,

Nová

k,

&

Dvorsk?

,

2017; Welsh

et

al.,

2016), where

students

must

experience

entrepreneurship

to

actually

grasp

the

true

nature

of

entrepreneurship (Plumly et al., 2008). Thus, the knowledge accumulated at university

should

be

combined

with

the

experience

gained

through

extra-curricular

activities

(European

Commission,

2012; Pittaway

et

al.,

2011; Toutain,

Fayolle,

Pittaway,

&

Politis,

2017).

Examples

of

these

activities

are

the

participation

in

student

clubs,

sports,

non-profit

organizations

and

junior

enterprises

(JEs).

JEs

are

considered

an

initiative

that

promotes

learning-by-doing

and

experiential

learning

and

it

may

complement the traditional methods of EE in universities by bridging the gap between

academia and business environment (European Commission, 2012; Kuratko, 2005).

Despite many evidences of the benefits of engaging in extra-curricular training

activities

(Vazquez

et

al.,

2011

),

in

the

case

of

promoting

students’

entrepreneurial

8

behaviour

and

intention

there

is

still

a

lack

of

knowledge

regarding

the

benefits

of

complementing formal EE training with extra-curricular activities (Pittaway, Gazzard,

Shore, & Williamson, 2015).

Junior enterprises

A

Junior

Enterprise

(JE)

is

a

non-profit

civil

society

organization,

formed

and

managed

exclusively

by

undergraduate

and

postgraduate

higher

education

students.

JEs

provide

services

for

companies,

institutions

and

society,

under

the

guidance

of

teachers

and

professionals,

aiming

to

consolidate

and

enhance

the

knowledge

and

skills

of

their

members.

JEs

are

similar

to

real

companies,

guided

by

principles

of

corporate

governance,

having

a

management

council

and

executive

board,

and

following a specific regulation. A JE aims at fostering the entrepreneurial spirit of its

members,

not

just

to

ensure

its

personal

and

professional

development,

but

also

to

promote business sustainability and the enlargement of JE's national networks (JADE,

2017).

According to JADE (2017), the main benefit of JEs is their capacity to promote a

business-education approach through a learning-by-doing philosophy where students

learn how to strategically manage and develop a company by working in one. Also,

JEs contribute to the development of specific skills, such as the ability to recognize

opportunities, to plan and implement actions, and, in the end, to measure results. Thus,

JEs are considered labs that enhance students' employability, and, at

the same time,

create an impact in society by fostering the growth of local SMEs that benefit from

JEs’ services.

The

research

carried

out

around

JEs

is

scarce

and

some

of

the

few

articles

published focus on the impact of some processes or use JEs as a case study (Costal,

Turrioni, & Martins, 2013; Michaelis, Wagner, & Schweizer, 2015). Despite the lack

of research, the few studies that focused on JEs’ impact

on students

concluded that

activities

carried

out

in

JEs

enable

its

members

to

gain

practical

experience

(Bogo,

Henning, Schmitt, & Marco, 2014), to contact with the business world (helping them

in building their professional network) (Bogo et al., 2014; Costa & Saraiva, 2012), to

develop their entrepreneurial and managerial skills (Gruber- Muecke & Kailer, 2011),

9

improve their employability (Bogo et al., 2014; Pennarola, Pistilli, & Dawson, 2016)

and

fostering

their

entrepreneurial

spirit

(Costa &

Saraiva,

2012; Gruber-Muecke

&

Kailer, 2011).

Beside,

JEs

have

being

recognized

over

the

last

years

as

a

best

practice

in

practical education. The European Commission and OECD have highlighted the role

of JEs in several relevant events and reports, such as the Lisbon Strategy: governing

strategy of EU in 2000

–

2010, and in the EU strategy for 2010

–

2020 (Council of the

European Union, 2009). A survey carried out by the European Commission showed

that 25% of the Alumni of JEs are (very) likely to start their own business within the

next ten years, compared to 16% of students that have taken EE formal courses, and to

10% of students

who have not

received any kind

of EE. Also, it was observed that

78%

of

JADE

Alumni

find

a

job

right

after

graduation,

compared

to

66%

of

other

students that have taken EE courses, and to 59% of students who have not received

any kind of EE (European Commission, 2012).

Given the number of JEs around the world in the area of business and economics,

which are more than one- third of the total JEs according to Junior Enterprise Global

Council (2018), it is relevant to study the impact of JEs on the skills of management

and economics students.

Assessing the impact of entrepreneurship education

The impact assessment of EE or extracurricular activities in students' behaviour

remains a matter of extensive debate in this research field (Fayolle, 2005; Pittaway et

al., 2011; Vaicekauskaite & Valackiene, 2018). Most studies argue that EE influences

students' behaviour and it raises students' future intention of creating a new business,

as shown in Bae, Qian,

Miao, and Fiet's

(2014) review of 73 studies. Many

authors

consider intention as a consciously planned behaviour (Bird, 1988; Krueger, Reilly, &

Carsrud, 2000), being entrepreneurial intention (EI) considered as an antecedent of the

actual entrepreneurial behaviour (Fayolle, Gailly, & Lassas-Clerc, 2006). Within the

EI

literature,

two

theoretical

models

have

received

most

of

the

research

attention: Ajzen

(1991) Theory

of

Planned

Behaviour

(TPB)

and Shapero

and

Sokol

(1982) Entrepreneurial

Event

Model

(EEM)

(Daniel

&

Castro,

2018; Kuehn,

2008).

10