-
SLA
期末考试提纲
Week 9
Chapter 1
Introducing Second Language
Acquisition
Chapter 2
Foundations of Second Language
Acquisition
PART ONE:
Definition:
1.
Second Language Acquisition (SLA): a
term that refers both to the study of
individuals and groups who are learning
a language subsequent to learning
their
first one as young children, and to the process of
learning that
language.
2.
Formal L2
learning: instructed learning that takes place in
classrooms.
3.
Informal L2 learning: SLA that takes
place in naturalistic contexts.
4.
First
language/native
language/mother
tongue
(L1):
A
language
that
is
acquired
naturally in early childhood, usually because it
is the primary
language
of
a
child’s
family.
A
child
who
grows
up
in
a
multilingual
setting
may have more than
one “first” language.
5.
Second
language
(L2):
In
its
general
sense,
this
term
refers
to
any
language
that is acquired
after the first language has been established. In
its
specific sense, this term typically
refers to an additional language which
is learned within a context where it is
societally dominant and needed for
education, employment, and other basic
purposes. The more specific sense
contrasts with foreign language,
library language, auxiliary
(
帮助的，辅
助的
)
language, and language for specific
purposes.
6.
Target language: The language that is
the aim or goal of learning.
7.
Foreign
language:
A
second
language
that
is
not
widely
used
in
the
learners’
immediate
social
context,
but
rather
one
that
might
be
used
for
future
travel
or
other
cross-
cultural communication situations, or one
that
might
be
studied
as
a
curricular
requirement
or
elective
in
school
with
no
immediate
or necessary
practical application.
8.
Library
language: A second language that functions as a
tool for further
learning,
especially
when
books
and
journals
in
a
desired
field
of
study
are
not
commonly published in the learner’s L1.
9.
Auxiliary
language
: A second language that
learners
need to know for some
official functions in their immediate
sociopolitical setting.
Or that they
will
need
for
purposes
of
wider
communication,
although
their
first
language
serves most other
needs in their lives.
10.
Linguistic
competence: The underlying knowledge that
speakers/hearers
have
of
a
language.
Chomsky
distinguishes
this
from
linguistic
performance.
11.
Linguistic
performance:
The
use
of
language
knowledge
in
actual
production.
12.
Communicative
competence:
A
basic
tenet
(
原
则
、
信
条
、
教
条
< br>)
of
sociolinguistics
defined as “what a speaker needs to know to
communicate
appropriately
within
a
particular
language
community”
(Saville
-Troike
2003)
13.
Pragmatic
competence:
Knowledge
that
people
must
have
in
order
to
interpret and convey
meaning within communicative
situations.
14.
15.
Multilingualism: The ability to use
more than one language.
Monolingualism: The ability to use only
one language.
16.
Simultaneous
multilingualism:
Ability
to
use
more
than
one
language
that
were acquired during
early childhood.
17.
Sequential
multilingualism: Ability to use one or more
languages that
were learned after L1
had already been established.
18.
Innate
capacity: A natural ability,
usually
referring to children’s
natural ability
to learn or acquire language.
19.
Child
grammar:
Grammar
of
children
at
different
maturational
levels
that
is
systematic in terms of production and
comprehension.
20.
Initial
state:
The
starting
point
for
language
acquisition;
it
is
thought
to
include
the
underlying
knowledge
about
language
structures
and
principles
that are in
learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2
acquisition.
21.
Intermediate
state:
It
includes
the
maturational
changes
which
take
place
in “child
grammar”, and the L2 developmental
sequence which is known as
learner
language.
22.
Final state: The outcome of L1 and L2
leaning, also known as the stable
state
of adult grammar.
23.
Positive
transfer:
Appropriate
incorporation
of
an
L1
structure
or
rule
in L2
structure.
24.
Negative transfer: Inappropriate
influence of an L1 structure or rule
on
L2 use. Also called interference.
25.
Poverty-of-
the-stimulus: The argument that because language
input to
children is
impoverished
and they still
acquire
L1, there
must
be
an innate
capacity for L1 acquisition.
26.
Structuralism:
The
dominant
linguistic
model
of
the
1950s,
which
emphasized the description of different
levels of production in speech.
27.
Phonology:
The
sound
systems
of
different
languages
and
the
study
of
such
systems generally.
28.
Syntax: The
linguistic system of grammatical relationships of
words
within sentences, such as
ordering and agreement.
29.
Semantics:
The linguistic study of meaning.
30.
Lexicon:
The
component
of
language
that
is
concerned
with
words
and
their
meanings.
31.
Behaviorism:
The
most
influential
cognitive
framework
applied
to
language
learning
in
the
1950s.
It
claims
that
learning
is
the
result
of
habit
formation.
32.
Audiolingual
method: An approach to language teaching that
emphasizes
repetition and habit
formation. This approach was widely practiced in
much
of the world until at least the
1980s.
33.
Transformational-Generative
Grammar:
The
first
linguistic
framework
with an internal
focus, which
revolutionized
linguistic theory and
had
profound effect on both the study of
first and second languages. Chomsky
argued effectively that the behaviorist
theory of language acquisition is
wrong
because
it
cannot
explain
the
creative
aspects
of
linguistic
ability.
Instead, humans
must have some innate capacity for
language.
34.
Principles and Parameters (model): The
internally focused linguistic
framework
that
followed
Chomsky’s
Transformational-
Generative
Grammar
.
It
revised specifications of
what constitutes innate capacity to include more
abstract
notions of
general principles and
constraints common to
human
language as part of a Universal
Grammar.
35.
Minimalist program: The internally
focused linguistic framework that
followed Chomsky’s
Principles and Parameters
model.
This framework adds
distinctions between lexical and
functional category development, as well
as more emphasis on the acquisition of
feature specification as a part of
lexical knowledge.
36.
Functionalism:
A
linguistic
framework
with
an
external
focus
that
dates
back to the early twentieth century and
has its roots in the Prague School
(
布拉格学派
) of
Eastern Europe. It emphasizes the information
content of
utterances and considers
language primarily as a system of communication.
Functionalist approaches have largely
dominated European study of SLA and
are
widely followed elsewhere in the world.
37.
Neurolinguistics:
The
study
of
the
location
and
representation
of
language
in
the
brain,
of
interest
to
biologists
and
psychologists
since
the
nineteenth
century
and
one
of
the
first
fields
to
influence
cognitive
perspectives on SLA when systematic
study began in 1960s.
38.
Critical
period: The limited number of years during which
normal L1
acquisition is
possible.
39.
Critical Period Hypothesis: The claim
that children have only a limited
number of years during which they can
acquire their L1 flawlessly; if they
suffered brain damage to the language
areas, brain plasticity in childhood
would allow other areas of the brain to
take over the language functions of
the
damaged areas, but beyond a certain age, normal
language development
would not be
possible. This concept is commonly extended to SLA
as well, in
the claim that only
children are likely to achieve native or near-
native
proficiency in L2.
40.
Information
processing (IP): A cognitive framework which
assumes that
SLA (like learning of
other complex domains) proceeds from controlled to
automatic
processing
and
involves
progressive
reorganization
of
knowledge.
41.
Connectionism:
A
cognitive
framework
for
explaining
learning
processes,
beginning
in
the
1980s
and
becoming
increasingly
influential.
It
assumes
that
SLA
results from increasing strength of associations
between stimuli and
responses.
42.
Variation
theory: A microsocial framework applied to SLA
that explores
systematic
differences
in
learner
production
which
depend
on
contexts
of
use.
43.
Accommodation
theory:
A
framework
for
study
of
SLA
that
is
based
on
the
notion that speakers
usually unconsciously change their pronunciation
and
even the grammatical complexity of
sentences they use to sound more like
whomever they are talking
to.
44.
Sociocultural theory (SCT): An approach
established by Vygotsky which
claims
that interaction not only facilitates language
learning but is a
causative
force
in
acquisition.
Further,
all
of
learning
is
seen
as
essentially a social process which is
grounded in sociocultural settings.
45.
Ethnography(<
/p>
人种论、民族志
) of communication: A
framework for analysis
of
language
and
its
functions
that
was
established
by
Hymes(1966).
It
relates
language
use
to
broader
social
and
cultural
contexts,
and
applies
ethnographic methods
of data collection and interpretation
to
study
of
language acquisition and
use.
46.
< br>Acculturation(
文化适应
):
Learning the culture of the L2 community and
adapting to those values and behavior
patterns.
47.
Acculturation Model/Theory: Schumann’s
(1978) theory that identifies
group
factors
such
as
identity
and
status
which
determine
social
and
psychological distance
between learner and target language populations.
He
claims these influence outcomes of
SLA.
48.
Social
psychology:
A
societal
approach
in
research
and
theory
that
allows
exploration
of
issues
such
as
how
identity,
status,
and
values
influence
L2
outcomes
and
why.
It
has
disciplinary
ties
to
both
psychological
and
social
perspectives.
PART TWO: Short & Long
answers:
Chapter
1
1.
What
are
the
similarities
and
differences
between
linguists,
psycholinguist,
sociolinguists and social
psycholinguists?
P3
（
1
）
Linguists
emphasize
the
characteristics
of
the
differences
and
similarities in the
languages that are being learned, and the
linguistic
competence
(underlying
knowledge)
and
linguistic
performance
(actual
production) of learners at various
stages of acquisition.
（
2
）
Psychologists
emphasize the mental or cognitive processes
involved in
acquisition, and the
representation of languages in the
brain.
（
3
< br>）
Sociolinguists
emphasize
variability
in
learner
linguistic
performance
,
and
extend
the
scope
of
study
to
communicative
competence
(underlying
knowledge
that
additionally
accounts
for
language
use,
or
pragmatic
competence).
（
4
）
Social
psychologists
emphasize
group-related
phenomena,
such
as
identity
and social motivation, and the interactional and
larger social
contexts of
learning.
2.
What
are
the
differences
between
second
language,
foreign
language,
library
language and
auxiliary language? P4
（
1
）
A
second language is typically an official or
societally dominant
language needed for
education, employment, and other basic purposes.
It is
often acquired by minority group
members or immigrants who speak another
language
natively.
In
this
more
restricted
sense,
the
term
is
contrasted
with
other terms in this list.
（
2
）
A
foreign language is one not widely used in the
learners' immediate
social
context
which
might
be
used
for
future
travel
or
other
cross-
cultural
communication
situations,
or
studied
as
a
curricular
requirement
or
elective
in
school, but with no immediate or necessary
practical application.
（
3
）
A
library
language
is
one
which
functions
primarily
as
a
tool
for
future
learning through reading, especially
when books or journals in a desired
field of study are not commonly
published in the learners' native
tongue.
（
4
）
An
auxiliary
language
is
one
which
learners
need
to
know
for
some
official
functions in their
immediate political setting, or will need for
purposes
of
wider
communication,
although
their
first
language
serves
most
other
needs
in their lives.
3.
Why are some
learners more (or less) successful than other?
P5
The intriguing question
of
why
some L2 learners are
more successful than
others
requires
us
to
unpack
the
broad
label
“learners”
for
some
dimensions
of discussion.
Linguistics may distinguish categories of learners
defined
by
the
identity
and
relationship
of
their
L1
and
L2;
psycholinguists
may
make
distinctions
based
on
individual
aptitude
for
L2
learning,
personality
factors,
types
and
strength
of
motivation,
and
different
learning
strategies;
sociolinguists
may
distinguish
among
learners
with
regard
to
social,
economic, and
political differences and learner experiences in
negotiated
interaction; and social
psychologists may categorize learners according to
aspects
of
their
group
identity
and
attitudes
toward
target
language
speakers
or toward L2 learning
itself.
Chapter2
1.
List at least
five possible motivations for learning a second
language at
an older age.
P10
The
motivation
may
arise
from
a
variety
of
conditions,
including
the
following:
Invasion or
conquest
of
one’s
country
by
speakers
of
another
language;
A need or desire to contact
speakers of other languages in economic or
other specific domains;
Immigration to a country
where use of a language other than one's L1 is
required;
Adoption
of
religious
beliefs
and
practices
which
involve
use
of
another
language;
A
need
or
desire
to
pursue
educational
experiences
where
access
requires
proficiency in
another language;
A desire for occupational or social
advancement which is furthered by
knowledge of another
language;
An
interest in knowing more about peoples of other
cultures and having
access to their
technologies or literatures.
2.
What are the
two main factors that influence the language
learning? P13
（
1
）
The
role of
natural
ability:
Humans are
born
with a
natural
ability or
innate capacity
to learn language.
（
2
）
The
role
of
social
experience:
Not
all
of
L1
acquisition
can
be
attributed
to
innate
ability,
for
language-specific
learning
also
plays
a
crucial
role.
Even
if
the
universal
properties
of
language
are
preprogrammed
in
children,
they must learn
all of those features which distinguish their L1
from all
other
possible
human
languages.
Children
will
never
acquire
such
language-specific
knowledge
unless
that
language
is
used
with
them
and
around
them,
and they will learn to use only the language(s)
used around them, no
matter what their
linguistic heritage. American-born children of
Korean or
Greek ancestry will never
learn the language of their grandparents if only
English surrounds them, for instance,
and they will find their ancestral
language
just
as
hard
to
learn
as
any
other
English
speakers
do
if
they
attempt
to learn it as an
adult. Appropriate social experience, including L1
input
and interaction, is thus a
necessary condition for acquisition.
3.
What
is
the
initial
state
of
language
development
for
L1
and
L2
respectively?
P17-18
The
initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of
an innate capacity
for language
acquisition which may or may not continue to be
available for
L2, or may be available
only in some limited ways. The initial state for
L2
learning,
on
the
other
hand,
has
resources
of
L1
competence,
world
knowledge,
and established skills for interaction,
which can be both an asset and an
impediment.
4.
How does
intermediate states process? P18-19
The cross-linguistic influence, or
transfer of prior knowledge from L1 to
L2, is one of the processes that is
involved in interlanguage development.
Two
major
types
of transfer
which occur
are:
(1) positive
transfer, when
an
L1 structure or rule is used in an
L2 utterance and that use is appropriate
or
“correct”
in
the
L2;
and
(2)
negative
transfer
(or
interference),
when
an
L1
structure
or
rule
is
used
in
an
L2
utterance
and
that
use
is
inappropriate and considered an
“error”.
5.
What is a necessary condition for
language learning (L1 or L2)? P20
Language input to the learner is
absolutely necessary for either L1 or L2
learning
to
take
place.
Children
additionally
require
interaction
with
other
people
for
L1
learning
to
occur.
It
is
possible
for
some
individuals
to
reach
a fairly high level of
proficiency in L2 even if they have input only
from
such
generally
non-reciprocal
sources
as
radio,
television,
or
written
text.
6.
What is a
facilitating condition for language learning?
P20
While
L1
learning
by
children
occurs
without
instruction,
and
while
the
rate
of
L1
development
is
not
significantly
influenced
by
correction
of
immature
forms or by degree
of motivation to speak, both rate and ultimate
level of
development
in
L2
can
be
facilitated
or
inhabited
by
many
social
and
individual
factors,
such
as
(1)
feedback,
including
correction
of
L2
learners'
errors;
(2)
aptitude,
including
memory
capacity
and
analytic
ability; (3)
motivation, or need and desire to learn; (4)
instruction, or
explicit teaching in
school settings.
7.
Give
at
least
2
reasons
that
many
scientists
believe
in
some
innate
capacity
for language.
P21-24
The notion that
innate linguistic knowledge must underlie
（指原则、理由构
成某学说
...
的基础，潜在于
...
之下
)
language acquisition was prominently
espoused
(
采纳或支持事业
理念
)
by Noam Chomsky. This
view has been supported
by arguments
such as the following:
(1)
Children’s
knowledge
of
language
goes
beyond
what
could
be
learned
from
the input they receive: Children often
hear incomplete or ungrammatical
utterances along with grammatical
input, and yet they are somehow able
to
filter the language they hear so that the
ungrammatical input is not
incorporated
into
their
L1
system.
Further,
children
are
commonly
recipients of
simplified input from adults, which does not
include data
for
all
of
the
complexities
which
are
within
their
linguistic
competence.
In addition, children hear only a
finite subset of possible grammatical
sentences,
and
yet
they
are
able
to
abstract
general
principles
and
constraints
which
allow
them
to
interpret
and
produce
an
infinite number
of sentences
which they have never heard before.
(2)
Constraints
and principles cannot be learned: Children’s
access to
general constraints and
principles which govern language could account
for the relatively short time it takes
for the L1 grammar to emerge, and
for
the fact that it does so systematically and
without any “wild”
divergences. This
could
be so because
innate principles
lead
children
to
organize the input they receive only in
certain ways and not others. In
addition to the lack of negative
evidence , constraints and principles
cannot be learnt in part because
children acquire a first language at an
age when such abstractions are beyond
their comprehension; constraints
and
principles are thus outside the realm of learning
process which are
related to general
intelligence.
(3)
Universal
patterns
of
development
cannot
be
explained
by
language-specific input: In spite of
the surface differences in input,
there
are similar patterns in child acquisition of any
language in the
world. The extent of
this similarity suggests that language universals
are
not
only
constructs
derived
from
sophisticated
theories
and
analyses
by linguists, but
also innate representations in every young child’s
mind.
8.
Linguists have
taken an internal and/or external focus to the
study of
language acquisition. What is
the difference between the two? P25-26
Internal
focus
emphasizes
that
children
begin
with
an
innate
capacity
which
is
biologically
endowed,
as
well
as
the
acquisition
of
feature
specification
as
a
part
of
lexical
knowledge;
while
external
focus
emphasizes
the
information content of
utterances, and considers language primarily as a
system of communication.
9.
What are the two main factors for
learning process
in
the
study
of SLA from
a
psychological perspective? P26-27
(1)
Information
Processing,
which
assumes
that
L2
is
a
highly
complex
skill,
and
that
learning
L2
is
not
essentially
unlike
learning
other
highly
complex
skills. Processing itself is believed
to cause learning;
(2)
Connectionism, which does not consider language
learning to involve
either innate
knowledge or abstraction of rules and principles,
but rather
to result from increasing
strength of associations (connections) between
stimuli and responses.
10.
What are the
two foci for the study of SLA from the social
perspective?
P27
(1) Microsocial focus: the concerns
within the microsocial focus relate to
language acquisition and use in
immediate social contexts of production,
interpretation,
and
interaction.
(2)
Macrosocial
focus:
the
concerns
of
the
macrosocial
focus
relate
language
acquisition
and
use
to
broader
ecological
contexts, including cultural,
political, and educational settings.
Week10
Chapter 5
Social contexts of Second Language
Acquisition
PART ONE:
Definition
1.
Communicative
competence:
A
basic
tenet
of
sociolinguistics
defined
as
“what
a
speaker
needs
to
know
to
communicate
appropriately
within
a
particular language
community”(Saville
-Troike
2003)
2.
Language
community:
A
group
of
people
who
share
knowledge
of
a
common
language
to at least some extent.
3.
Foreigner
talk:
Speech
from
L1
speakers
addressed
to
L2
learners
that
differs
in
systematic
ways
from
language
addressed
to
native
or
very
fluent
speakers.
4.
Direct
Correction: Explicit statements about incorrect
language use.
5.
Indirect correction: Implicit feedback
about inappropriate language use,
such
as
clarification
requests
when
the
listener
has
actually
understood
an
utterance.
6.
Interaction
Hypothesis:
The
claim
that
modifications
and
collaborative
efforts which
take place in social interation facilitate SLA
because they
contribute to the
accessibility of input for mental
processing.
7.
Symbolic mediation: A link between a
person’s current mental state and
higher order functions that is provided
primarily by language; considered
the
usual
route to learning
(of
language, and
of learning
in
general).
Part
of
Vygosky’s Sociocultural Theory.
8.
Variable
features:
Multiple
linguistic
forms
(vocabulary,
phonology,
morphology, syntax, discourse) that are
systematically or predictably used
by
different speakers of a language, or by the same
speakers at different
times, with the
same meaning or function.
9.
Linguistic
context: Elements of language form and function
associated with
the variable
element.
10.
Psychological context: factors
associated with the amount of attention
which
is
being
given
to
language
form
during
production,
the
level
of
automaticity versus control in
processing, or the intellectual demands of
a particular task.
11.
Microsocial
context:
features
of
setting/situation
and
interaction
which
relate to
communicative events within which language is
being produced,
interpreted, and
negotiated.
12.
Accommodation theory: A framework for
study of SLA that is based on the
notion that speakers usually
unconsciously change their pronunciation and
even the grammatical complexity of
sentences they use to sound more like
whomever they are talking to
.
13.
ZPD:
Zone
of
Proximal
Development,
an
area
of
potential
development
where
the
learner
can
only
achieve
that
potential
with
assistance.
Part
of
Vygosky’s
Soci
ocultural Theory.
14.
Scaffolding:
Verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a
learner
perform any specific task, or
the verbal collaboration of peers to perform
a task which
would
be too
difficult for
any one of
them
in individual
performance.
15.
Intrapersonal
interaction:
communication
that
occurs
within
an
individual's own mind, viewed by
Vygosky as a sociocultural phenomen.
16.
Interpersonal
interaction:
Communicative
events
and
situations
that
occur between people.
17.
Social
institutions:The systems which are established by
law, custom,
or
practice
to
regulate
and
organize
the
life
of
people
in
public
domains:
.
politics, religion, and
education.
18.
Acculturation: learning the culture of
the L2 community and adapting to
those
values and behavioral patterns.
19.
Additive
bilingualism:
The
result
of
SLA
in
social
contexts
where
members
of
a
dominant
group
learn
the
language
of
a
minority
without
threat
to
their
L1 competence or to their ethnic
identity.
20.
Subtractive bilingualism: The result of
SLA in social contexts where
members of
a minority group learn the dominant language as L2
and are more
likely
to
experience
some
loss
of
ethnic
identity
and
attrition
of
L1
skills
—
especially
if they are children.
21.
Formal
L2
learning:
formal/instructed
learning
generally
takes
place in
schools, which are
social institutions that are established in accord
with
the needs, beliefs, values, and
customs of their cultural settings.
22.
Informal L2
learning: informal/naturalistic learning generally
takes
place
in
settings
where
people
contact
—
and
need
to
interact
with
—
speakers
of another language.
PART TWO: Short & Long
answers
1.
what is the difference between
monolingual and multilingual communicative
competence?
Differencese
between
monolingual
and
multilingual
communicative
competence
are
due in part to the different social
functions of first and second language
learning,
and
to
the
differences
between
learning
language
and
learning
culture.
The
differences
of
the
competence
between
native
speakers
and
nonative
speakers
include structural differences in the
linguisitc system, different rules for
usage
in
writing
or
conversation,
and
even
somewhat
divergent
meanings
for
the
“same”
lexical
forms.
Further,
a
multilingual
speaker’s
total
communicative
competence differs from that of a
monolingual in including knowledge of rules
for the appropriate choice of language
and for switching between languages,
given a particular social context and
communicative purpose.
2.
what are the
microsocial factors that affect SLA?
P101-102
a)
L2
variation
b)
input
and
interaction
c)
interaction
as
the
genesis of
language
3.
What
is
the
difference
between
linguistic
&
communicative
competence
(CC)?
Linguistic
competence-
It
was
defined
in
1965
by
Chomsky
as
a
speaker's
underlying ability
to produce grammatically correct expressions.
Linguistic
competence
refers
to
knowledge
of
language.
Theoretical
linguistics
primarily
studies
linguistic
competence:
knowledge
of
a
language
possessed
by
“an
ideal
speak-
listener”.
Communicative competence- It is a term
in linguistics wh
ich refers to “what
a
speaker
needs
to
know
to
communicate
appropriately
within
a
particular
language
community”,
such
as
a
language
user's
grammatical
knowledge
of
syntax
,
morphology
,
phonology
and
the
like,
as
well
as
social
knowledge
about
how
and
when to
use utterances appropriately.
4.
Why is CC in L1 different from L2?
L1
learning
for
children
is
an
integral
part
of
their
sociolization
into
their
native language
community. L2 learning may be part of second
culture learning
and adaptation, but
the relationship of SLA to social and cultural
learning
differs greatly with
circumstances.
5.
What is
Accommodation Theory? How does this explain L2
variation?
Accommodation
theory:
Speakers
(usually
unconsciously)
change
their
pronunciation
and
even
the
grammatical
complexity
of
sentences
they
use
to
sound
more like whomever they are talking to.
This accounts in part for why native
speakers tend to simply their language
when they are talking to a L2 learner
who
is
not
fluent,
and
why
L2
learners
may
acquire
somewhat
different
varieties
of the target language when they have
different friends.
6.
Discuss the
importance of input & interaction for L2 learning.
How could
this affect the feedback
provided to students?
ⅰ. a)
From the perspective of linguistic approaches:
(1) behaviorist: they
consider
input
to
form
the
necessary
stimuli
and
feedback
which
learners
respond
to
and
imitate;
(2)
Universal
Grammar:
they
consider
exposure
to
input
a
necessary
trigger
for
activating
internal
mechanisms;
(3)
Monitor
Model:
consider comprehensible input not only
necessary but sufficient in itself to
account for SLA;
b) From the perspective of
psychological approaches: (1) IP framework:
consider
input
which
is
attended
to
as
essential
data
for
all
stages
of
language
processing; (2)
connectionist framework: consider the quantity or
frequency
of input structures to
largely determine acquisitional sequencing;
c)
From
the
perspective
of
social
approaches:
interaction
is
generally
seen
as essential in providing learners with
the quantity and quality of external
linguistic input which is required for
internal processing.
ⅱ.
Other
types
of
interaction
which
can
enhance
SLA
include
feedback
from
NSs
which
makes
NNs
aware
that
their
usage
is
not
acceptable
in
some
way,
and
which
provides
a
mod
el
for
“correctness”.
While
children
rarely
receive
such
negative
evidence
in
L1,
and
don’t
require
it
to
achieve
full
native
competence,
corrective
feedback
is
common
in
L2
and
may
indeed
be
necessary
for
most
learners
to
ultimately
reach
native-like
levels
of
proficiency
when
that
is
the
desired
goal.
7.
Explain ZPD.
How would scaffolding put a student in
ZPD?
Zone of Proximal
Development, this is an area of potential
development, where
the learner can
achieve that potential only with assistance.
Mental functions
that
are
beyond
an
individual's
current
level
must
be
performed
in
collaboration
with other
people before they are achieved independently. One
way in which
others help the learner in
language development within the ZPD is through
scaffolding. Scaffolding refers to
verbal guidance which an expert provides
to help a learner perform any specific
task, or the verbal collaboration of
peers to perform a task which would be
too difficult for any one of them
individually.
It
is
not
something
that
happens
to
learners
as
a
passive
recipient, but
happens with a learner as an active
participant.
8.
Think
of
a
macrosocial
factor
that
affects
English
learning
in
China.
Which
of
does it fall under? What are the effects? What are
the results?
The 5 topics
are:
Global abd
national status of L1 and L2
Boundaries and
identities
Institutional forces and
constraints
Social categories
Circumstances of
learning
At
a
global
and
national
level,
influences
on
SLA
involves
the
power
and
status
of learners’ native and target
langu
ages, whether overtly stated in
official
policies or covertly realized
in cultural values and practices.
Social
boundaries
that
are
relevant
to
SLA
may
coincide
with
national
borders,
but they also exist within and across
them as they function to unify speakers
as members of a language community and
to exclude outsiders from membership;
influences on SLA at this level often
involve the relationship between native
and
target
language
groups,
as
well
as
the
openness
and
permeability
of
community boundaries.
Within nations, institutional forces
and constraints often affect the use and
knowledge of L2 in relation to such
things as social control, political and
religiouspractices, and economic and
educational opportunities.
Age, gender, and ethnicity are factors
of social group membership which may
potentially be relevant to
SLA.
Finally,
circumstances
of
learning
can
influence
SLA,
such
as
learners’
prior
educational
experiences,
whether
the
L2learning
process
is
informal
or
formal,
and (if informal)
the type of educational model learners have access
to and
the pedagogical orientation of
their teachers and administrators.
9.
How
do
linguistic
modifications
aid
comprehension
at
early
stages
of
learning?
High
frequency phrases may be memorized as chunks of
speech which can be
processed
automatically;
pauses
at
appropriate
grammatical
junctures
can
help
listeners reorganize constituent
structures; a slower rate of speech allows
more
time
for
information
retrieval
and
controlled
processing;
and
topicalization helps in identifying
what a sentence is about and what part of
it contains new information.
10.
What are the useful types of
interactional modifications? P108-110
Repetition;
paraphrase;
expansion
and
elaboration;
sentence
completion;
frame
for substitution; vertical
construction; comprehension check and request for
clarification.
11.
What does S-C
theory differ from linguistic approach,
psychological
approach, and social
approach?
A
key
concept
in
this
approach
is
that
interaction
not
only
facilitates
language
learning but is a
causative force in acquisition; further, all of
learning is
seen
as
essentially
a
social
process
which
is
grounded
in
socialcultural
.
S-C
Theory
differs from most linguistic approaches in giving
relatively limited
attention to the
structural patterns of L2 which are learned, as
well as in
emphasizing
learner
activity
and
involvement
over
innate
and
universal
mechanisms; and it
differs from most psychological approaches in its
degree
of focus on factors outside the
learner, rather than on factors which are
completely
in
the
learner's
head,
and
in
its
denial
that
the
learner
is
a
largely
autonomous
processor; it also differs from most other social
approaches in
considering interaction
as an essential force rather than as merely a
helpful
condition for learning.
12.
Explain why some learners are more
successful than others from the
perspective of S-C theory?
The S-C framework supports the view
that some learners may be more successful
than
others
because
of
their
level
of
access
to
or
participation
in
a
learning
community, or because of the amount of
mediation they receive from experts or
peers, and because of how well they
make use of that help.
13.
What are the
macrosocial factors that influence SLA?
Global and national status
of L1 and L2
Boundaries and identities
Institutional forces and
constraints
Social categories
Circumstances of learing
14.
What
are
the
advantages
of
young
learners
and
old
learners
respectively?
Young L2 learners are more likely to
acquire the language in a naturalistic
setting;
they
are
more
likely
to
use
the
L2
in
highly
contextualized
face-to-face
situation. Older learners succeed in SLA to the
level of being
able
to
“pass”
for
a
native
speaker
when
social
motivation
is
strong
enough.
Week 11
Chapter 4 the psychology of Second
Language Acquisition
PART
ONE: Definitions:
1.
Lateralization p190 :Particular locations in the
brain may be specialized
for language
functions. Such specialization of the two halves
of the brain is
known as
lateralization.
（接下来的部分有助于理解）
For example,
the left
hemisphere
becomes
specialized
for
most
language
activity,
many
believe
during
a
critical
period
for
language
development.
Right
hemisphere
may
be
more
involved in L2 b/c
adults learn L2 in multiple ways vs. just one way
with L1.
Higher
proficiency
L2
may
use
less
areas
of
the
brain
b/c
information
retrieval
is more efficient
2.
Plasticity
p192
:The
capacity
of
the
brain
to
assume
new
functions.
In
early
childhood, if one area
of the rain is damaged, another area of the brain
is
able
to
assume
the
functions
of
the
damaged
area
because
in
retains
plasticity.
3.
Critical
Period
Hypothesis
p187:
The
claim
that
children
have
only
a
limited
number of years during which they can
acquire their L1 flawlessly; if they
suffered
brain
damage
to
the
language
areas,
brain
plasticity
in
childhood
would
allow
other
areas
of
the
brain
to
take
over
the
language
functions
of
the
damaged
areas, but beyond a
certain age, normal language development would not
be
possible. This concept is commonly
extended to SLA as well, in the claim that
only children are likely to achieve
native or near-native proficiency in
L2.
4. Information
Processing p189 A cognitive framework which
assumes that SLA
proceeds from
controlled to automatic processing and involves
progressive
reorganization
of
knowledge.
具体的
mental
process
es
包括：
perception
and
the
input
of
new
information;
the
formation,
organization,
and
regulation
of
internal (mental) representations; and
retrieval and output strategies.
5. Controlled Processing p187 An
initial stage of the learning process that
demands learners’ attention.
6.
Automatic
Processing
p185
：
After
an
initial
stage
of
controlled
processing,
automatic
processing
in
a
stage
in
learning
that
requires
less
mental
“space”
and attentional
effort on the learner’s part.
Processing
p186The
heart
of
the
Information
Processing
framewor
k,
where
learning
occurs
as
learners
go
from
controlled
to
autom
atic
processing
and
reorganize
their
knowledge.
p193The
reorganization
of
knowledge
that
takes
place
in
the
c
entral
processing
stage
of
Information
Processing.
p192
In
SLA,
the
language
that
learners
produce
in
speech/sign
or
in
writing.
p186A
cognitive
framework
for
explaining
learning
processes,
be
ginning
in
the
1980s
and
becoming
increasingly
influential.
It
as
sumes
that
SLA
results
from
increasing
strengthof
associations
bet
ween
stimuli
and
responses.
11.
Aptitude
p185An
individual
set
of
characteristics
which
correlates
with
success
in
language learning.
: a need and desire to learn.
p192
style
：
An
individual’s
preferred
way
of
pro
cessing:
.
of
perceiving,
conceptualizing, organizing, and
comprehension. p186
（问答题
12
有具体的几
种认知模式）
strategies:
the
behavior
and
techniques
that
individuals
adopt
in
their
efforts
to learn L2.
（包括
Metacognitiv
e
元认知策略
,
cognitive
认知策略
,
so
cial/affective
）
p191
of SLA: Input for SLA is whatever
sample of L2 that learners are exposed to,
but it is not available for processing
unless learners actually notice it: .
pay attention to it.
model:
it
is
a
functional
approach
which
assumes
that
all
linguistic
performance
in
volves
“mapping”
between
external
form
and
internal
function.
This approach considers that learning
the system of form-function mapping is
basic for L1 acquisition.
: A learning style characterized by a
global and holistic mode of processing
new
information.
(
场
依
存
型<
/p>
，
通
过
high
ly
contextualized
interactive
communicative
experiences
能学得更好
)
: A learning style characterized by a
particularistic and analytic mode of
processing
new
in
formation.
（
场
独
立
型
，
通
过
decontextualized
analytic
approaches and
formal instruction
能学得更好）
PART TWO: Short & Long
answers
1. : Describe the
two major frameworks of the learning
processes.
(1)Information
Processing: Learning is learning. Abstraction of
rules or
principles
(
学习目的
)
Order
of
Acquisition:
Multidimensional
Model,
Processability
Theory,
Competition Model.
（以下是具体解释这三种习得顺序的假设
Multidimensional
Model
：
Fixed
sequence
to
language
learning
，
Must
first
master
lower degree, then can master the
higher degree of processing capacity
Processability Theory: Extension of
multidimensional model, To determine and
explain sequences in processing new
skills in language learning.
Competition Model:
All
linguistic performance involves “mapping” between
external form and internal function .
mental web pages. Students already have
L1 maps, adjust it to fit L2. Thus, a
good way to learn L2 is through multiple
exposures to same concept in different
ways to make more
associations
）
(2)Connectionism:
Learning
is
learning,
increase
strength
of
associations
between stimuli and responses; the
change in the strength of the connections.
Parallel
Distributed
Processing
(PDP):
Over
multiple
exposures
(input),
learners find the
pattern and strengthen association
（大量接
触不同的
input
来增强刺激与反应的联系）
2.
PDP
（
Parallel Distributed Pro
cessing
）与
IP
（
Information Processing
）的
区别
PDP
：
Repeated
exposure is enough, attention is
distributed
Many connections
are activated at the same time
Knowledge depends on strength of
connections
IP
：
Learner must
give attention to go from controlled to
automatic
Processing is
serial
Knowledge is stored
in memory and retrieved as patterns
3. p. 86: What do you
think are the typical motivation for middle-school
students to learn English? What can
you do to increase motivation in the
classroom?
大家可以根据
自己的理解回答，本人觉得课本的以下这些点可以给些思路。
Motivation is variously defined, but it
is usually conceived as a construct
which
includes
at
least
the
following
components
(see
Oxford
and
Ehrman1993;Dornyei2001):
(1)Significant goal or need
(2)Desire to attain the goal
(3)Perception that learning L2 is
relevant to fulfilling the goal or meeting
the need
(4)Belief in the likely success or
failure of learning L2
(5)Value of potential
outcomes/rewards
4. P. 87: What are the differences
between FD and FI learners?
As
this
dimension
has
been
applied
to
learning,
individuals
who
are
FD
are
also
considered
more
global
and
holistic
in
processing
new
information;
individuals
who are FI are considered more
particularistic and analytic. FD learners are
thought to achieve more success in L2
acquisition via highly contextualized
interactive communicative experiences
because that fits better with their
holistic
“cognitive
style,”
and
FI
learners
to
profit
more
from
decontextualized analytic approaches
and formal instruction. In terms of an
Information
Processing
model
of
learning,
FI
learners
may
have
better
attentional
capacities.
5.
P.
88:
Think
of
a
typical
lesson
and
describe
how
you
wou
ld
teach
it
1st,
deductively,
and
2nd,
inductively.
.
Grammar.
Which
is
more
difficult
to
teach?
To
learn?
简答题一般不会来让人
设计教案的吧，所以大家自己思考下，可能会是论述题中出现。
Deductive
(or
“to
p
-dow
n”)
processing
begins
with
a
prediction
or
rule
and
then
applies
it
to
interpret
particular
instances
of
input.
Inductive
(or
“bo
ttom
-
up”)
processing
begins
with
examining
input
to
discover
some
pattern
and
then
formulates
a
generalization
o
r
rule
that
accounts
for
it
and
that
may
then
in
turn
be
appl
ied
deductively.
6.
P.
89:
Each
learner
has
different
sensory
preference
for
pr
ocessing
input.
Design
a
lesson
that
utilizes
all
four
traits.
The
four
sensory
preference
for
processing
input:
visual,
auditory
,
kinesthetic
(movement-
oriented),
or
tactile
(touch-oriented).
No
one
means
of
processing
has
inherent
advantage
over
others,
but
L2learners
reportedly
feel
more
comfortable
when
teachers’
instruc
tional
strategies
are
congruent
with
their
sensory
preference.
Thi
s
dimension
may
also
be
age-
related.
(
年纪小的比较喜欢动作倾向的
)
7.
In
a
typical
Chinese
classroom,
what
are
three
factors
that
could
increase
a
student’s
anxiety?
As
a
teacher,
think
of
st
rategies
you
could
use
to
reduce
the
anxieties
you
described.
(1)
(2)
Self-
confidence
(personalities)
Instructional
context or
task,
（
例如需要口语的任务容易让人感到紧
张，而小组讨论比较不让人觉得紧张）
，
(3)
Systematic
cultural
differences
< br>（不同国家和地区得学生对于任务能否完
成所体验的焦虑感是不同的，比如亚洲人
重面子就比较紧张）
.
(
具体请看<
/p>
P90
中
间标号部分，理解即可
)
8.
p.
91:
Describe
three
ways
in
which
you
could
increase
the
potential
for
social/affective
learning
in
the
classroom.
Seeking
opportunities
to
interact
with
native
speakers;
working
co
operatively
with
peers
to
obtain
feedback
or
pool
information;
as
king
questions
to
obtain
clarification;
requesting
repetition,
expl
anation,
or
examples.
（请各位具体展开）
9. What is U-shaped development? Please
give an example. P76
Learners’
use
of
an
initially
correct
form
such
as
plural
“feet”
in
English,
followed by incorrect “foots”,
eventually again appearing as “feet”. In
this
case,
“feet”
is
first
learned
as
an
unanalyzed
word,
without
recognition
that
it
is
a
combination
of
foot
plus
plural.
The
later
production
of
“foots”
is
evidence
of
systemic
restructuring
that
takes
place
when
the
regular
plural
“–s” is added to the
learner’s grammar. “Feet” appears when the learner
begins to acquire exceptions to the
plural inflection rule. (
大致就是这样一
个过程：学习者无意识地正确使用了某种特殊语言规律或形式，当他们意识到有规律
存在的时候由于这种规律并不是普适的而是存在特殊情况，他们就用错了，最后真正
意识到这种正常规则的变体而能正确使用
)
10. What is the
Multidimensional Model? p76
This model includes the following
claims:
A.
learners
acquire
certain
grammatical
structures
in
a
developmental
sequence.
B.
developmental
sequences
reflect
how
learners
overcome
processing
limitations.
C.
Language
instruction
which
targets
developmental
features
will
be
successful
only if learners
have already mastered the processing operations
which are
associated with the previous
stage of acquisition.
（与本单元的第一题重复，
但这里更具体，清晰程度不如第一题中所给的）
11. What are the differences between
Integrative motivation and Instrumental
motivation? p86
Integrative motivation is based on
interest in learning L2 because of a
desire to learn about or associate with
the people who use it . for romantic
reasons),
or
because
of
an
intention
to
participate
or
integrate
in
the
L2-using
speech community;
in any case, emotional or affective factors are
dominant.
(
该动机就是为了与人交流而学，情感的
作用较大
)
Instrumental motivation involves
perception of purely practical value in
learning the L2, such as increasing
occupational or business opportunities,
enhancing
prestige
and
power,
accessing
scientific
and
technical
information,
or just passing
a course in school.
（不是语言本身的动机）
Neither of these orientations has an
inherent advantage over the other in
terms of L2 achievement. The relative
effect of one or the other is dependent
on
complex
personal
and
social
factors:
.
L2
learning
by
a
member
of
the
dominant
group
in
a
society
may
benefit
more
from
integrative
motivation,
and
L2
learning
by
a
subordinate
group
member
may
be
more
influenced
by
instrumental
motivation.
12. Please illustrate some common
cognitive
Cognitive style
refers to individuals' preferred way of
processing: . of
perceiving,
conceptualizing,
organizing,
and
recalling
information.
Categories of
cognitive style are commonly indentified as pairs
of traits on
opposite
ends
of
a
continuum.
There
are
usually
ten
cognitive
styles:
Field-dependent VS.
Field-independent, global VS. particular, holistic
VS.
analytic,
deductive
VS.
inductive
and
focus
on
meaning
VS.
focus
on
form.
（具
体看前文）
Week 12
The
Classroom
Context---An
Acquisition
Rich
or
an
Acquisition
Poor
Environment
PART ONE: Questions
1. What is the Interactional
Hypothesis?
The
Interactional
Hypothesis,
as
propounded
by
Long,
states
that:
interactional
modifications which are directed at solving a
communication
difficulty
help
to
make
input
comprehensible
and
comprehensible
input
promotes
acquisition.
(
跟他意见一样
)
2. What are display questions?
Display questions are
questions that are designed to test and ,
therefore,
have predeterminated
answers.
Display
questions
are
questions
you
ask
to
see
if
the
person
you
are
speaking
to
knows
the
answer.
In
an
ELT
classroom,
this
normally
means
questions
teachers
ask
learners
to
see
if
they
understand
or
remember
something.
Display
questions
can be compared to referential
questions, which are questions you ask because
you don't know the answer. For
instance, the teacher asks students “What is
the past simple form of
leave?”
3. What are
referential questions?
Referential
questions
are
questions
that
are
truly
information-seeking
and,
therefore, permit ‘open’
answers.
Referential
questions are questions you ask someone because
you don't know
the
answer.
In
an
ELT
classroom,
this
can
mean
questions
teachers
ask
learners
and
learners ask each other. Referential questions can
be compared to display
questions, for
which the answer is already clear and teachers ask
just to see
if the learners know the
answer, or for language manipulation. For
instance,
the teacher asks students
“What do you do at weekend?”
4. What is Comprehensive Output
Hypothesis?
Swain
argues
that
producing
output
that
is
precise,
coherent
and
appropriate,
encourages
learners to develop the necessary grammatical
resources, provides
the learner with
opportunities to test hypotheses and may force the
learner
to move from the kind of
semantic processing which is possible in reception
to the syntactic processing required in
production.
Developed
by
Merrill
Swain,
the
comprehensible
output
hypothesis
states
that
learning takes place when encountering
a gap in the linguistic knowledge of
the L2. By noticing this gap the
learner becomes aware of it and might be able
to modify his output so that he learns
something new about the language.
5. What is silent speaking?
Silent speaking means
silently rehearsing answers to questions addressed
to other learners.
PART TWO:
Questions
What kinds of
interaction promote L2 learning?
many fetures the author consider to
bear on the question that what kinds of
interaction promote L2 learning? What
are the fetures?
As
Ellis
supposed,
there
are
six
interactional
features
of
language
classroom, that bear on the question
that what kinds of interaction promote
L2 learning:
(1)
simplified
input:
The
language
which
teachers
address
to
language
learners
is
often
simplified.
Furthermore,
the
degree
of
simplification
that
takes places relates to the learners’
level of proficiency.
(2)
interactional
modifications: Interactional modifications are
directed
at solving a communication
difficulty to make input comprehensible.
(3)
teachers’ questions:
Que
stions require responses and,
therefore, they
serve as a means of
obliging learners to contribute to the
interaction.
Questions
serve
as
a
device
for
controlling
the
progress
of
the
interaction
through which a lesson is
enacted.
(4)
topic control: Topic control may be
important for L2 acquisition in
several
ways.
It
is
very
likely
that
learners
will
be
more
motivated
to
attend
to
input
if
they
are
involved
in
choosing
and
developing
the
topics
that
are
talked
about.
Having
control
over
topic
is
also
one
way
of
ensuring
that
the
linguistic
complexity
of
the
input
is
tailored
to
the
learner’s
won
level.
(5)
learner
participation: There is a strong case has been
made for learner
output
as
a
contributory
factor
to
successful
L2
acquisition.
For
instance,
Swain’s
Compreh
ensible Output Hypothesis.
However, the role of learner
participation in L2 acquisition is one
of the more controversial issues.
(6)
use of the
L1
另外在
conclusion<
/p>
中也有提到这些
features:
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-
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