-
大学英语词汇学复习要点
1.
外来词分为四类
：
1 Denizens ,cup
from cuppa , port form portus 2) Aliens garage ,
dé
cor 3) Translation
–
loans e.g. long time no see
4) Semantic- loans.e.g. dream.
2.
Motivation
分类
：
onomatopoeic
motivation, morphological motivation, semantic
motivation,
etymological motivation.
Types of
meaning
: grammatical ~ & lexical ~;
conceptual ~& associative
~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective
~, collocative ~,)
多义关系及两种研究方法
:Polysemy is a
common feature peculiar to all natural language
that one word has
two or more senses or
meanings. Diachronic approach is an approach to
polysemy which studies how a
word
derived its different meanings from its primary
meaning in the course of time.
3.
Synchronic approach
is an approach to polysemy which
studies the coexistence of various
meanings of the same word in a certain
historical period of time.
4.
Primary meaning
is the only meaning that a word had when it was
first created.
5.
Derived meanings
are the meanings that a word gets from
the primary meaning at different stages
of its development in the course of
time.
6.
同形同音异义关系
Homonymy is one of the features of
words that a word is different in meaning from
another, but either identical both in
sound and spelling or identical only in sound or
spelling with the
other Homonyms
generally fall into three classes: perfect
homonyms (same name); homographs (same
spelling) and homophones
（
some
sound
）
. Perfect homonyms are
those words identical both in sound
and
spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bear
/bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/ (v) to
put
up with. Homographs are the words
identical only in spelling but different in sound
and meaning, e.g.
saw / / (v) to
scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig.
Homophones refer to the words identical
only in sound but different in spelling
and meaning, e.g. dear /dia/ (n) a loved person;
deer /dia/ (n) a
kind of animal.
7.
同形同音异义词与多义词的区别
Perfect homonyms and polysemants are
fully identical with regard to
spelling
and pronunciation. This creates the problem of
differentiation. The fundamental difference
between homonyms and polysemants lies
in the fact that the former refers to different
words which
happen to share the same
form and the latter is the one and same word which
has several
distinguishable meanings.
One important criterion is to see their etymology,
i.e. homonyms are from
different
sources whereas a polysemant is from the same
source which has acquired different meanings
in the course of development. The
second principal consideration is semantic
relatedness. The various
meanings of a
polysemant are correlated and connected to one
central meaning to a greater or lesser
degree, e. g. neck (See 6.1 Polysemy) .
On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms
have
nothing to do with one another. In
dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all
listed under one
headword whereas
homonyms are listed as separate entries.
8.
同义关系
Synonyms
are words which share the same or
nearly the same meaning with each other but
different in sound and spelling. There
are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which
result from
borrowing, dialects and
regional English, figurative and euphemistic use
of words, coincidence with
idiomatic
expressions. There exists the difference between
or among synonyms in terms of their
denotation, connotation or application.
Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words
which are
identical in meaning in all
its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms
are similar or nearly the
same in
denotation, but embrace different shades of
meaning or different degrees of a given quality.
9.
Sources of
Synonyms
1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and
regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic
use of words 4) Coincidence with
idiomatic expressions
10.
如何区分同义词？
1Difference in
denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference
in application
11.
What are
the characteristics of antonyms?
12.1) Antonyms are classified on the
basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has
more than one
meaning can have more
than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic
inclusion. 4) Contrary terms
are
gradable antonyms, differing in degree of
intenisty, so each has its own corresponding
opposite.
13.
上下义关系
:Hyponymy
deals with the relationship of semantic
inclusion.
That is, the meaning
of a more specific word is included in
that of another more general word. Superordinates
refer to some
general words;
subordinates denote those more specific words.
Hyponymy can be described in terms of
tree-like graphs, with higher-order
superordinates above the lower subordinates. But
their status either
as superordinate or
subordinate is relative to other terms. For
example, horse, dog, pig are
subordinates in relation to animal, but
superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal
itself becomes
a subordinate of
creature. And creature in turn becomes
14.
词义变化的种类
There
are five types of meaning, changes
:
extension, narrowing, degradation,
elevation, and transfer among which
extension and narrowing are the most common.
Changes in
meaning can be accounted for
from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason,
class reason, and
psychological reason)
and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the
influx of borrowing, and analogy).
15.
词义的扩大
Extension is a process by which a word
with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a
broader or less
16.
definite
concept.
Compare the
following
；词义的缩小
Narrowing is
a process by which a word of
wider
meaning acquires a specialized
sense
；词义的升华
Elevation is a
process by which a word moves
from a
derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or
appreciative
sense
；词义的降格
Degradation is a
process by which a word of reputation
slides into a pejorative
use,
；词义的转移
Transfer is a
process by
which a word denoting one
thing changes to refer to a different but related
thing. Paper serves as an
example. This
word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus,
which was once used to make paper. In
modern times, paper is made from rags,
wood, straw and the like, but the product has
retained the
same name. There is
associated transfer. There are other kinds of
transfer, such as, concrete to
abstract, abstract to concrete and
transfer of sensation.
17.<
/p>
语境的种类
:
非语言语境。语言语境：词
汇语境和语法语境。
There are two types of
contexts:
linguistic
context
and extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic context).
Extra-linguistic context refers to those
situations and features which are not
directly a part of the language in use but which
either contribute
in conveying a
message or have an influence on language use.
Linguistic or Intra-linguistic context is
further subdivided into lexical context
and grammatical context. By lexical context we
mean the words
that occur together with
the word in question. By grammatical context we
mean that the meanings of
a word may be
influenced by the structure in which it occurs.
18.
语境的作用：
Three
major functions of context:
elimination
of ambiguity, indication of referents,
provision of clues for inferring word-
meaning. Context an be summed up as follows:1)
definition 2)
explanation 3) example 4)
synonymy 5) Antonymy 6)hyponymy 7) relevant
details 8) word structure
19.
英语习语的特点
The
characteristics of idioms include semantic unity
and structural stability.
2
0.
英语习语的分类
According to the
criterion of their grammatical functions, we
classify them into idioms
nominal in
nature, idioms adjectival in nature, idioms verbal
in nature, idioms adverbial in nature, and
sentence idioms. The stylistic features
are characterized with colloquialisms, slang, and
literary
expressions.
21.
英语习语的使用
The use
of idioms
involves their stylistic
features, rhetorical features , and
variations of idioms.
22.
英语习语的修辞色彩
The
rhetorical features of idioms
are
represented with phonetic manipulation
( alliteration
头韵法
and
rhyme
叠韵
) , lexical
manipulation (
reiteration
复用
,
repetition
重复
and
j
uxtaposition
反义词叠用
), figures
of speech ( simile
明喻
,
metaphor
暗喻
,
metonymy
转喻
,
synecdoche
借代
,
personification
拟人
,
euphemism
委婉
)
23.
英语习语的变异形式
In
the variations, addition, deletion, replacement,
position-shifting and
dismembering are
involved in the changes in idioms constituents .
24.
Associative
meaning :
1) associative meaning is the
secondary meaning supplemented to the
conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from
the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended
and
indeterminated. 3)It is liable to
the influence of such factors as culture ,
experience, religion,
geographical
region, class background,education, etc.
4)Associative meaning comprises four types :
connotative, stylistic, affective, and
collocative.
25.
Metonymy
和
Synecdoche
,
修饰有何区别
?
Both
metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of
names, yet they differ in that the
former is a case of using the name of one thing
for another closely
associated with it
and the latter is that of substituting part for
the whole and vice versa.
26.
词典的种类
There are
four types of dictionaries with their features
mentioned in this parts:
(1)
monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, (2)
linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries, (3)
unabridged,
desk and pocket
dictionaries, (4) specialized dictionaries. A
monolingual dictionary is a dictionary which
is written in one language.
27.
A bilingual
dictionary
is one in which two
languages are involved.
28.
A linguistic dictionary
is a dictionary which aims at defining
words and explaining their usages in
the language.
29.
An encyclopedic dictionary
is one in which encyclopedic information is
provided along with the
general
information as in a linguistic dictionary .
30.
An
encyclopedia
is a dictionary which only
provide encyclopedic information concerning each
headword.
31.
An unabridged dictionary
is an unshortened dictionary with at
least 200,000 headwords that can
supply
a great quantity of basic, information about a
word.
32.
A desk
dictionary
is a medium-sized dictionary
containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000.
33.
A pocket
dictionary
is a dictionary which has
about 50,000 entries or fewer.
七、分析综合
49-50*9
1
、对句子进行理论分析，并改进：
amb
iguous
——
原因
cause
——
可以如何理解？
——
< br>如何改进？
improve
2
、对单词进行分析：
re-
collect-
ion
——
归属
free
morpheme, bound
morpheme
——
解释
3
、构词法进行分析：
word
formation:
例如：
VIP=very
important person
属于
aronym
4
、分析
i
diom:
属于什么短语
——
作用
注：重点有
1
、
idioms
相关知识；
2
、一些名词解释，如术语等；
3
、
types of
meaning
；
二
.
串讲内容
Introduction
部分：
logy
这门课算
哪一种学科的分支
:Lexicology is a branch of
linguistics.
logy
和那些重要
的学科建立了联系
:
1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics
4) Etymology 5) Lexicography
36.
研究
lexicology
的两大方法
:
1)
Diachronic approach :
历时语言学
2) Synchronic approach
:
共时语言
学
e.g.
wife
纵观历时语言学的方法论，
woman
词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？
Woman
的词义的变化算
Narrowing or
specialization
第一章
37.
What is word ?
词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释
。
1) A
word is a minimal free form of a
language;2) A sound unity or a given
sound 3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can
function alone in
a
sentence.
以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释
38.
词的分类（
< br>classification of a word
）词根据发音可以分为哪两
种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词
1)
simple words 2) complex
words
单音节词例子：
e.g. Man and
fine are simple
多音节词例子：
e.g.
Management, misfortune,
blackmailmanagement
可以次划分为
manage
和
–
ment misfortune
可以次划
分为
mis-
和
fortuneblackmail
次划分为
black
和
mail
is the relationship
between sound and meaning?
1)There is ?no logical
relationship between the sound and actual
thing.e.g. dog. Cat
2)The relationship between
them is conventional.
3) In different languages the same
concept can be represented by different sounds.
is relationship between
sound and form?
1)The
written form of a natural language is the written
record of the oral form. Naturally the written
form should agree with the oral form,
such as English language.
2)This is
fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e.
Old English
3)
With the
development of the language, more and more
differences occur between the two.
are the great changes that causes
illogical relationship or irregularity between
sound and form?
1)
The internal
reason for this is that the English alphabet was
adopted from the Romans, which does
not
have a separate letter tore present each sound in
the language so that some letters must do double
duty or work together in combination.
2)
Another reason
is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly
than spelling over the years, and
in
some cases the two have drawn farapart.
3)
A third reason
is that some of the differences were created by
the early scribes.
4)
Finally comes the borrowing, which is
an important channel of enriching the English
vocabulary.
要记住以上四句话中的关键词：
1) influenced
by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early
scribes4) borrowing
42.
你能不能举出外来语对英语发音
,
拼写造成不一
致的例子有哪些？
e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp)
,eureka (Gr),
kimono
(Jap)
外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是
?sound
and form ‘
不一致。
43.
What is vocabulary?
Vocabulary refers to the total number
of the words in a language, but it can
stand for all the words used in a
particular historical period. Vocabulary also
refers to all the words of a
given
dialect, given book, a given discipline and the
words possessed by an individual person.
44.
Classification of Words
(
本课的一个重点
,
年年考试都考
)
45.
What is the
classification of words? How to classify words in
linguistics?
Three criteria :1) By use of frequency
2) By notion 3) By origin
By use of
frequency
可划分为：
1) The basic word stock
2) Nonbasic word vocabulary
By
notion
可划分为：
1) Content word2)
Functional word Content words are also known as
notional
words . (Content words
的别称
)Functional words are
also known as empty words, or form words.
(Functional words
的别称
)Functional words
possesses a characteristic of basic word stock,
i.e. stability
ing to Stuart Robertson
,et al (1957),* (
年年考试必考
)
t
he nine functional words ,
namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the
, to , will ,you
are the
characteristics of basic word stock?
1)
All national
character2) Stability3) Productivity4) Polysemy5)
Collocability
要把握住
?All
national character‘
词
,
就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通词
48.<
/p>
稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？
e.g.
man, woman , fire, water …e.g. machine, video,
telephone …e.g. bow, chariot , knight
Stability is relative, not absolute.
49.
根据词的
use
frequency
划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作
None basic
vocabulary,
非基本词有几大特
点？或者是几大分
类
？
1) Terminology e.g.
sonata, algebra2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon
) 3) Slang
e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang )
4) Argot e.g. persuader5) Dialectal words e.g.
station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid
( ScotE=
blood)6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (will)7) Neologisms
e.g. email ( Neologisms )beaver
是
girl
的
slang
表达方式，但是二者之间存在着
Stylistic
difference
constitutes the larger number among
English vocabulary,
content
or functional
words ? Answer :
Content
words
What is native words? Answer :
(1) By origin, English words can be
classified into native words and
borrowed words.(2) Native words are words brought
to Britain in the
fifth century by the
German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the
Jutes, thus know asAnglo-Saxon
words.
(3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in
number ,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000,
but they form the mainstream of the
basic word stock and stand at the core of the
language
51.
什么叫
borrowed
words?
Answer: (1) words taken over from
foreign languages are know as
borrowed
words or loan words or borrowings in simple
terms.(2) It is estimated that English borrowings
constitute 80 percent of the modern
English vocabulary (3) The English language has
vast debts .In any
dictionary some 80%
of the entries are borrowed.
52
什么叫
Denizens?
D
enizens are words borrowed early in the past and
now are well assimilated into
the
English language. In other words they have come to
conform to the English way of pronunciation
and spelling, such as port from portus
(L).?Denizens‘
的例子都要记：
Port
from portus (L), cup from cuppa
(L),shift from skipta (ON), shirt from
skyrta (ON), change from changier (F), pork from
porc (F).
53
什么叫
Translation-
loans ?T
ranslation-loans are words and
expressions formed form the existing
material in the English language but
modeled on the patterns taken from another
language, such as
? long time no see
from haojiumeijian (Ch)
54
什么叫
Semantic-
loans ?
words of this category are not
borrowed with reference to the form ,But
their meaning are borrowed , in other
words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an
existing word
in the language ,such as
the word dream ,which originally meant ‘joy‘ and
?music ‘, and its modern
meaning was
borrowed later from the Norse.
第二章：
The development of the
English vocabulary
The
Indo-European Language Family It is assumed that
the world has approximately 3,000(some put
it5,000)languages ,which can be grouped
into roughly 300 language families on the basis of
similarities
in their basic word stock
and grammar .
55.(
重点：语系划分的标准
)What is the criteria to
divide language families ?
The answer :
1. the basis of similarities in their basic word
stock 2. grammar(
重点
)The
Balto-Slavic
comprises such modern
languages
as(
选择题内容：
)Prussian,
Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech,
Bulgarian
,Slovenian and Russian.
56.
?
Indo-
European’
两大分支：
n set n set Eastern
set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian,
Armenian and Albanian Western set :
Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic. In the
western Set, Greek is the
modern
language derived from Hellenic. Celtic
：
Scottish, Irish, Welsh,
Breton The five Romance
languages,
namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian ,
Roumanian all belong to the Italic.
The Germanic family consists of the
four Northern European Languages: Norwegian
,Icelandic, Danish
and Swedish ,which
are generally known as Scandinavian languages.
Then there is German,
Dutch ,Flemish
and Vikings‘ invasion, many Scandinavian words
came into the English
language. It is
estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian
origin have survived in modern
English.
Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to
60,000 words. It was a highly inflected
language just like modern German.
57.
重点句
: Modern
English began with the establishment of printing
in England
古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于
(scripts
)
古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了
( early scripts)Sound and form
真正达到统一是在什么时期？
.Sound and form
reached their concord in ( Modern English period )
如果从词
汇变化的角度而言，
Mode
rn English
又可以细划分为
early period ,modern period.
58.*
现代英语早期阶段属于哪一
种文化现象的发展时期
（重要的选择或填空内容）
Early modern English appeared in the
Renaissance
English period
有什么样的外来语的进入？
The
Latin words swarmed into English in early modern
English period
现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还
有另外一个原因是
(colonization)The
richness of Modern English in vocabulary also
arises from
(Colonization )The English
language has evolved from a synthetic language to
the present analytic
language (
重要选择或填空内容
)
Growth
of Present-day English Vocabulary
60.
Three main sources of new
words :
1)The rapid development of
modern science and technology
2)Social, economic and political
changes;3)The influence of other cultures and
language
61.
Modes of Vocabulary
Development
1)creation 2) semantic change 3)
borrowing2)Semantic
change
（还包括外来词的
Semantic loans
）
Elevation, degradation,
extension, narrowing, transfer
外来
词可以被称作
borrowed
words ,
因此又可以被称作
.
重点句：
borrowed words are also
known as loaned
words
.
恢复古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色
Reviving
archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the
growth of English vocabulary though
quite insignificant. This is especially trueof
American English.
62.
英语从
synthetic
language
发展到
present
analytical language
是在英语的哪一个阶段完成的？
答案：
Modern English period
63.
文艺复兴时期，恰逢英语发展
的哪个阶段
?
答案：
Early
Modern English period
64.
在英语发展过程
在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？
French,
Latin, English in Middle English period
65.
easel, port,
freight,
出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？
答案：
Middle English , Dutch
66.
在英语发展的某一个阶段，有
一种语言进入英语，它一共带来了
2500
个词汇，
这种语言是什么？
答案：
Dutch
(
前年考题
)
67.
据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少
?
答案：
50,000
to 60,000
他们的来源是
(Anglo_Saxon
tongue )
第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，
如：
Mao jackets , black belt , kongfu,
这些词属于英语词汇发展的
Present - day
English Vocabulary
注意：
第二章出大题
的内容无非就是请简述印欧语系的发展与组成。
68.
Old English
和
Middle English
最
大的
striking
distinction
存在于哪一个方面
?
答案：
Old English was a
language of full endings, Middle English was one
of leveled endings.
69.
文艺复兴时期，哪两种文化得到了复兴
，这对英语词汇的丰富具有什么样
的影响
?
答案：
Greek ,
Roman cultur
70.
某些希腊词被引入到了英语
是在什么阶段
?
答案：
Modern
English
71.
十六世纪，
有一种新工业出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响，这是哪一种
industry?
答案：
Printing
这导致
sound and form
出现
concord ,
出现
standardization.
第三章复习
smallest unit in the
English language refers to
(morphemes)
minimal free
form
in the English language refers to
(word)
the plural form changing, some of the
words will take internal vowel change , this
internal vowel
change is called
(allomorphs)
75.
Deer
复数没有变
,
还是
deer, sheep
复数没有变
,
还是
shee
p,
因此
,
这种变化被称作
(zero derivation)
名词解释
:
76.
Morphemes :
The minimal meaningful units in a
language are known as morphemes. In other
words, the morphemes is the smallest
functioning unit in composition of words
77.
Allomorphs
:
The alternative morphs are known as
allomorphs, morpheme of plurality {-s}
has a number of allomorphs in different
sound context, e.g. in cats in bags, matches It
can be realized
by the change of an
internal vowel as in foot-feet, man-men, goose-
geese or by zero morphs as in
deer-
deer, fish-fish
78.
what are
the types of morphemes ? (
答
简答题时
,
名词解释
)
答案：
Free morphemes and bound
morphemes
。
79.
Free morphemes :
1) Free morphemes are independent of
other morphemes and are considered to
be free.2) These morphemes have
complete meanings in themselves and can be used as
free
grammatical units in sentences. 3)
They are identical with root words, as each of
them consists of a
single free
rootwords ,as each of them consists of a single
free root 4) free morphemes are free roots.
morphemes:
1)
Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are
bound.. 2) They are
bound to other
morphemes to form words. 3) Bound morphemes
include two types: bound root and
affix
affix
分为两类
:
inflectional and derivational affixes.
Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the
end of words to indicate grammatical
relationships are inflectional, thus known as
inflectional
morphemes.
Derivational affixes:
1)derivational affixes are affixes
added to other morphemes to
create now
words.2) Derivational affixes can be further
divided into prefixes and suffixes.
root :
1) a root is the
basic form of a word which cannot be further
analyzed without total loss of identity.
2) the root, whether free or bound,
generally carries the main component of meaning in
a word
3) a ‘root is that part of a
word
form that remains when all
inflectional and derivational affixes have been
removed’ st
em :
1) a stem may consist of a single root
morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes
as in a compound like handcuff.
2)
It can be a root morpheme plus one or more
affixational morphemes as in mouthful,
underestimate.
3) Therefore, a stem can
be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind
can be added.
81.
问题：
Stem
和
root
有一个最大的区别在哪里
? (
连着两年没有考过
)
答案：
a stem can be
defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can
be added.
82.
问题：
请加以区别下面两个词的特征
: nation , dict
请加以理论的分析
?
Both nation and dict belong
to roots, nation is free root, which can function
alone in a sentence, Nation
as a free
root, has complete meaning, when both prefixes and
suffixes attached to it are removed,
nation as a free root, still remains
Dict is a bound root, which can not function alone
grammatically , dict
carries the
fundamental meaning of words, dict has to combine
with the other morphemes to create new
words , for example , dictionary ,
contradiction .
83.
< br>问题：
分析下面一句话
: He is much
more cleverer than any other one in the village,
too heads are better
than
one.
请从构词角度分析以上的例子
,
cleverer , better cleverer (-er :
inflectional affixes ) better
( good ,
well
的特殊变化
) It is allomorph
of good and well.
第四章
:
84.
问题：在英语中
,
主
要的构词法分
为哪几种
?
答案：有七种
:1) Affixation 2)
Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening 5)
clipping 6) acronymy 7)
blending
有三种最常用
:
affixation , compounding and conversion
85.
问题：由
专有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种<
/p>
?
答案：
Extension
86.
问题：由普通名词变为专有名
词是词义变化的哪一种模式
?
答案：
N
arrowing
87.
问题：
Affixation
又被称为什么
?
它分为哪两类？
答案：
Affixation is also known as
derivation Affixation
falls into two
subclasses : prefixation and suffixation
要点
:
有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别
:a-, non, ir :
negative prefixes de- , dis- (
既属于
negative ,
也属于
reversative prefixes )
mal-, pseudo-, mis- :
pejorative
prefixes super , sur-, extra
：
prefixes of
degree or size anti-, contra-, counter-, pro- :
prefixes of orientation and attitude
trans-, fore- tele- : locative prefixes fore-,
post- : prefixes of time
and order bi-,
uni-, semi- : number prefixes pan-, vice - :
miscellaneous prefixes suffixation : 1. Noun
suffixes 1) Denominal nouns 2) Deverbal
nouns3) De-adjective nouns: ity, -ness, 4) Noun
and adjective
suffixes
注意
Compounding, acoronymy , blending ,
conversion , clipping
的名词解释
.
88.
要点
:
复合词分为
哪三类
: 1)solid
2) hyphenated 3) open
89.
简答题
: what are
the
characteristics of
compounds
?What are the
d
ifference between
compounds
and free phrases ?
答案：
1)
phonetic features2) Semantic features3)
Grammatical
features
最常见的三种词性
: 1)
Noun compound 2) Adjective compounds 3) verb
compounds
90.
问题：
在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性
,
哪两种不具有多产性
?
在形容性复合词当中
,
哪三类有多产性
?
动词
性复合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的
?
名词解释
:
Conversion
(
重点，还没考过
)Conversion is the
formation
of new words by converting
words of one class to another class. Functional
shift = conversion
Zero-
derivation
(
选择或填空要点
)Adjective to noun :
(1) full conversion (2) partial conversion
91.
问题：
形容词转为动词分为哪两类？
答案：由
Adjective
to verbs : (1) Transitive (2) Intransitive
92.
简答题
:
形容词变动词的三种类别
(
没考过
)
问题：
请你举出由
conjunction
变为
noun
的一个例子
?
答案：
Ifs
and buts blending are also called
blends or portmanteau words (
选择或填空要点
)
93.
问题：
?
blendi
ng’
分为哪四类合成词
？
1.
head + tail 2. head + head 3. head + word 4. word
+ tail
94.
问题
:
绝大多数
blending
都是什么
词性
?
答案：
nouns
，
The overwhelming majority of
blends are nouns;
very few are verbs
and adjectives are even fewer
.
95.
问题：
截短法
clipping
分为哪四类
？答案：
There
are four common types of clipping :1) Front
clipping2)
Back clipping3) Front and
back clipping4) Phrase
clipping
要注意
clipping
的例子有一个特殊变化：
fridge
( refrigerator
截短之后在
i, g
中间加一个
d ) ,
还有拼写发生变化，比如说：
coke ( coca
cola)
96.
问题：
什么是
acronymy
？
A
cronymy is the process of forming
new words by joining the initial letters
of ne ames of social and political
organizations or special noun phrases and
technical terms Acronymy
包含两类
:1) initialisms
(
不发音
)e.g. BBC, VOA, TB2)
acronyms (
形成新的发音
)e.g. CORE,
TEFL Words from
proper names
有四大类
:1. Names of people e.g.
bobby : Names of people2. Names of places e.g.
champagne, rugby 3. Names of books e.g.
utopia 4. Tradenames e.g. cabal
97.
问题：
以下的词采用哪种构词法？
e.g. diagnosis ---?diagnose : (<
/p>
先有诊断的名词
,
后有了诊断的动词
,
这种构
词被称作
) backformation bloomers
(
它的构词法满足哪一种词法
):
属于
Words from proper names
中的
Names of people VJ-day :(<
/p>
这种构词法是由哪一种构成的
)
属于
Initialisms
中的
Acronyms Pop:
(
采用哪一种构
词法构成的
) :
clipping Sitcom : blending FORTRAN : head + head
Bath (
名词
) ----- bathe (
动词
) Bath
和
bathe
存在一种什么关系
? ( Conversion
)
重点句：
Conversion is also
known as functional shift.
98.
问题：
Noun +
v-ing,
这类词构成的词是什么词
？答案：
compounding
99.
问题：
Record-
breaking ,
它是属于复合法中的哪一种？
答案：<
/p>
Adjectives compounds
100.
问题：请
说出
Adj
ectives compounds
中多产性强的有几类？
答有三类
1)
n + v-ing 2) n + a3) n + v-ed
101.
问题：
up-
bringing
是属于哪一类构词法构成的词？
答案：
noun compounds (adv + v-ing )
102.
问题：
复合词与自由短语的最
大的区别是什么
?
答案：区别也就是复合词的特点
:1) Phonetic features2)
Semantic
features3) Grammatical features
103.
问题：
red meat,
green horn,
它们是复合词的
哪一个特点构成的词<
/p>
?
答案
：
Semantic features
(
也就是从构
词上推不出它的涵义）
104.
问题：
Compounding
又被称作什么法？
答案：
composition
105.
问题：
由
compounding
或
composition
构成的词
被称作什么？
答案：
compounds
106.
问题：
复合词分为几类？分别举例加以说明？
答案：分为三类：
s
olid, hyphenated, opensolid : blackmail ,
blackmarkethyphenated: brother-in-law,
open : green horn , green hand
107.
问题：
当形容词转为动词时分为几类：
Adjectives to
verbs
答案：
有三类：
1)
Both transitive and intransitive
2)
Only transitive 3) Only intransitive
108.
问题：
由人的行为所造成的
结果进行转类之后，转成了什么词性
?
答案：
< br>verb to noun e.g. catch
109.
问题：
形容词可不可以转类，转成名词分为几个类别<
/p>
?
答案：分为两类：
1) full
conversion e.g. black , white
2)
partial conversion e.g. the rich , the poor
110.
问题：
名词再变成名词分为几类？分别举例说明？
答案：
1)
Concrete 2) abstract e.g. host :
（可加
-ess
变
成具体名词）
friend :
(
加
-ship
可变成抽象名词
)
111.
问题：
(
只作了解
)
A word is unity of sound and meaning ( true or
false )
答案：
true (
可从
word
的四
个特点看出）
112.
问题：
Most
loaned words are borrowed from foreign languages
without any change in sound and
spelling.
（
true
or false
）
.
答案：
true
外来词分为四类：
1) Denizens e.g. cup
from cuppa , port form portus
2) Aliens
e.g. garage , dé
cor 3) Translation
–
loans e.g. long time no see
4) Semantic- loans.e.g. Dream
113.
判断对错题
：
1
．
Conversion means transfer of a word from
one class to anther . (true or false
)
答案：
true
2
．
The
relationship between a word symbol and its meaning
is mostly arbitrary and
conventional.(<
/p>
答案：
true
3.a word used in different contexts may
contrast with different
antonyms .(true
or false)
答案：
true
4.
an allomorph is any of the variant forms of
morphemes. (true
or false
)
答题：
false
重点句：
A word which
has more than one meaning can
have more
than one antonym. E.g. fast
（
fast
在不同的语境中对应着不同的概念）
114.
选择题
：
1) C
hinese is our native
language, but we can not say the Chinese is our
?
.a)mother tongue b) first
language c) mother language d) official language <
/p>
答案：
C
）
mo
ther language (
不存在的一种说法
)
2)
问题：
以下的哪一个词
is not an expression
used by American?
A)
tube B) bar C)
Mailbox D) Congress
答案：
tube (
只有英国人把地铁叫
tube ,
美国人把它叫作
subway, underground )
3)
问题：
‘smog’
它是
‘smoke , fog’
合在一起形成的词，它是采用了下面哪一种构词法？
A) clipping B ) compounding C) blending
D) backformation
答案：
C ) blending
4)<
/p>
问题：以下的词哪些属于：
A)simple word B)
compound word C) derived word D) shortened
form.e.g.
goldmine (compound word )bike
( shortened form )process (derived word : cess
是一个不可分割的
bound
root
，
pro
它是一个前缀
)supermarket ( derived
word )language ( simple word )driver ( derived
word )dorm ( shortened form, clipping
)modernize ( derivation )blackboard ( compound
)bus
( shortened form ) (omnibus )
(
可能会出现的题
)
is the
difference between content words and
functional words
, illustrate your point
with examples ? (
未考过
)
注意：答题时先答名词解释，再加以例子说明。
<
/p>
(
复习要考虑的题
)
is the difference
between denotative meaning and connotative
meaning? (
论述题
)
are the fundamental features of the
basic word stock of the English vocabulary? (
未考过
)
答
题时先答名
词解释
basic word stock
再答五大特点并配
以例子加以说明。
(
关键答好第一个特点
:
?All national
character
，
它又分为五个特点
)
118.
问题：
Which of
the following word
s is not formed
through clipping
?
A)
dorm B) Motel C) gent D)
zoo
答案：
Motel: (blending)
119.
问题：
Old
English has vocabulary of about how many
words
?
答案：
50,000
to 60,000
120.
问题
：词素分为自由词素和粘着词素，自由词素又被称作自由词根，粘着词素分为哪两类？
答案：粘着词素分为：
Bound root
和
affixes
121.
选择题或填空：
Besides French words, English also
absorb as many as 2,500 words in the Middle
English Period. (Dutch ) A word is a
symbol that B . A ) is used by same community B)
represents
something else in the world
C) both simple and complex in nature D) Show
different ideas in different
sounds The
opposite of semantic elevation in meaning change
is called degradation or
pejoration
.Pronouns and numerals enjoy nationwide use and
stability, but has limited Productivity
122.
问题：以下的这些词是粘着
词素吗，
以下的这些词是什么样的构词法？
1) heart and
soul ( Adverbial in
nature )2) father -
male parent ( conceptual meaning )3) City-bred (
noun + v-ed )4) Lip-reading - lip
read
(backformation )5) headache (compound n + v )6)
antecedent (
下划线的这一部分是什么：
bound
morphemes ) 7) preview
( prefix :
前缀
)8) receive (
bound root )9) called ( inflectional affixes )
123.
第五章：
Word
Meaning The meanings of‘Meaning’
指的是哪三个
层次的内容
?
意义中的含义的三个层
次
的划分
: What are the meanings of
‘Meaning’?
1) Reference
(
有
reference
的词必然具有
sense,
也必
然具有
Concept ) 2)
Concept(
能够形成
Concept
的词必然有
reference ) 3) Sense
(
有
sense
的词未必具有
concept ,
也未必具有
reference) (Conjunction
, prepositions, adverbs,
它们都是具有
sense
的词
,
但是未必
具有
re
ference ,
也未必具有
concept,
例如：
if, but, probably :
它们有
sense,
但没有
concept )
124.
What is the relationship between the
reference and the thing outside the
language?
（等同于：
What
is r
elationship between
sound and form
）答
: Arbitrary and
conventional
125.
名词解释
:
reference
名词
Concept : 1. Meaning and
concept are closely connected but not
identical .They are both related
directly to referents and are notions of the words
but belong to different
categories.2.
Concept, which is beyond language, is the result
of human cognition, reflecting the
objective world in the human mind . 3.
Concept is universal to all men alike regardless
of culture, race,
language and so on.
4. a concept can have as many referring
expressions as there are languages in the
world.
126.
重点
: sense
的名词解释
：
Sense : 1.
? sense‘ denotes the relationships inside the
language. ? The
sense of an expression
is its place in a system of semantic relationships
with other expressions in the
language.‘ 2. Since the sense of an
expression is not a thing,
it is often
difficult to say what sort of
identity
it is. It is also an abstraction. *3. Every word
that has meaning has sense (not every word has
reference)
127.
重点：
What are
the type of motivation
？
1) Onomatopoeic motivation 2)
Morphological
Motivation 3) Semantic
Motivation 4) Etymological
Motivation
。
128..
填空题
some of
the words when edited with prefixes and suffixes,
it will become another new word,
either
new in meaning or new in sense, this motivation is
called ( morphological motivation )
129.
Compounds are totally
different in the meaning before it was carried out
with different elements,
so the meaning
of a compound can not be deduced from component
constituted this compound ,this
motivation is called ( morphological
motivation )
130.
pen in old
English , refers to the feather
, but
with the development of technology, fountain was
invented , but the name of this
material was kept up to this day, people still
used the pen to refer to
writting tool,
this motivation is called (etymological
motivation)
131.
Conceptual meaning also know as
(denotative meaning )
132..laconic answer
(
简短回答
),
laconic
的形成是属于哪一种理据
(etymological motivation)
133.
问题
: pingpong
ball , cuckoo
是靠哪一种理据形成的新词
?<
/p>
答案
: Onomatopoeic Motivation
134.
问题
:at the
foot of mountain, the mouth of river
, <
/p>
此时采用了哪一
种理据构成
?
答案
: Semantic
ation
论述题
: 1. What are the types
of motivation? 2. What are the types of meaning?
按大
的分支来分分为
:
(1)grammatical meaning (2)Lexical meaning
136.
分析题
:*‘The dog
is chasing a cat‘, analyze the sentence based on
grammatical meaning. Lexical
meaning
itself has two components: conceptual meaning and
associative meaning.(
语法意义上分析没考
过
,
但从词汇意义上分析考过
)
语法意义指一个词的词性
,
句中充当的成份
,
句子的时态
,
单复数形式等
.1)‘Dog, cat‘
are nouns, and ‘chase‘ is transitive
verb.2) The sentence is used in present continuous
tense.3) ‘The dog,
a cat‘ are singular
form.
137.
问题
:The pen is
mightier than sword?
请从语法意义的角度上分析这句话
?Both ‘pen
and sword‘ are
nouns. ‘mightier‘ is an
adjective, and ‘than‘ is sentence is in simple
present tense.
这是
现在时中采用的哪一种语法
结构
?‘Mightier than‘ is comparative
degree.‘pen and sword‘ are in
singular
form.‘The pen‘ is subject, and ‘sword‘
functions as an object to preposition
‘than‘.‘mightier‘ is predictive
138.
重点名词解释
:
Conceptual meaning:
1) Conceptual
meaning (also known as denotative meaning)
is the meaning given in the dictionary
and forms the core of word-meaning. 2) Being
constant and
relatively stable,
conceptual meaning forms the basis for
communiation as the same word has the same
conceptual meaing to all the speakers
of the same language
139.
Associative
meaning
:(
一定要把它的四种分支答上
)1)
associative meaning is the secondary
meaning supplemented to the conceptual
meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning
in that it
is open-ended and
indeterminated. 3)It is liable to the influence of
such factors as culture , experience,
religion, geographical region, class
background,education, etc. 4)Associative meaning
comprises four
types : connotative,
stylistic, affective, and collocative.
140.
问题
:
Connotative
meaning is not the same to everybody, every
situation and every time,
analyze the
statement?
答案
: e.g. A child
is prejudiced against, often jeered at, beaten or
scolded at
home, then home to his is
nothing but ‘ a hell‘, hence unfavourable
c
onnotatitions,
141.
问题
:
某些贬义词是不是任何时候都是贬义词？答案：
e.g. A
phrase like ‘son of a *****‘ which normally
has an associative meaning of crude
vulgarity may convey the connotation of
‘friendliness‘
and ‘intimacy‘ used
between two close friends when they meet after
some pr
olonged period of time.
142.
问题
:Stylistic
meaning
根据字典上的划分有几种划分
?
根据
The Five Clocks
划分
,
有几种划分
?
答案
:In
some dictionaries,
stylistic features are clearly marked as ‘formal‘,
‘informal‘, ‘literary‘, ‘archaic‘, slang‘.
Martin Joos in his book The Five Clocks
suggests five degrees of
formality: ‘frozen‘, ‘formal‘,
‘consultative‘, ‘casual‘ and
‘intimate‘.
143.
问
题
:
在日常生活中
,
< br>人们把文体只简单地划分为哪三类
?
答案
:1)formal 2)neutral 3) informal
注意
:
要把书中
89
页
中例子
[22][23]
分析要记好
.
在情感意义
affective meaning,
考试往往要落脚在
affective meaning
的两
个分类
:(
年
年
affective meaning
例子都考
) (1) appreciative
meaning (2) pejorative meaning Collocative
meaning
中的例子要记好
:
pretty , handsome Green
搭配的例子记好
: green on the job,
green fruit , green
with envy , green-
eyed monster
.
144.
问题
: Blackmail
从发音的角度被划分成什么词
,
从理据
的角度被划分成什么词
?
答案
:Com
plex Morphological
motivation
145.
问题
:
有
reference
的词必然具有
sense and concept (
正确
)
有
sense
的词一定具有
reference.(
错误
)
The word which have meaning does not
have necessarily reference.
146.
问题
: ‘Forget, forgot,
forgetting , forgotten , forgets‘
这是从哪一个
角度来界定这个词的分支
?
答案
:
Grammatical meaning
147.
问题
: ?frozen, ?formal‘ ,
?consultative‘, ?casual‘ and ?intimate‘
这五个词是总结了什么的划分，
是根
据什
么的划分
?
答案
< br>: stylistic meaning ,
是根据
The Five Clocks written
by Martin Joos.
148.
问题
:But in daily life , we
always refer to (formal), (neutral) , (informal).
149.
问题
: ‘Pretty
boy, pretty woman , pretty
garden, pretty garden , pretty car‘
，请解释这些词的意义一
样不一样？如果不一样请加以理论分析？答案<
/p>
:Collocative meaning, when pretty is
used to modify different
nouns both
animate and inanimate , their collocative meaning
are totally different.
150.
问题：
Table
tennis can be replaced by pingpong ball and the
name of the bird is also called cuckoo ,
which can also be reused to refer to
the sound of the bird , so their two words are
(onomatopoeically)
motivated.
151.
问题：
‘Unexpected, expectation, expecting‘, these three words are (morphologically) moti
vated.
152.
问题：
‘Hopeless, jobless, dislike‘,
这三个词是靠什么
motivated. (
morphologically motivated)
153.
问题：
‘East or
west , home is best‘ and ‘there is no place like
home‘.
这两话是使用了什么样的意义构
成的？答案
: Connotative meaning
第六章
: Sense Relations and
Semantic Field
polysemy, homonymy,
synonymy, antonymy and
hyponymy.
（五种关系的名词解释要记住）
Two
Approaches to Polysemy: 1) Diachronic approach2)
Sychronic approach Two Processes of
Development
1)
radiation (1) radiation is a semantic
process in which the primary meaning stands at the
centre and
the secondary meanings
proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.
(2) the meaning are independent
of one
another
, but can all be traced back to
the central meaning. e.g. face, neck
2)
concatenation
(1) meaning ? linking together‘, is the semantic
process in w
hich the meaning of a word
moves gradually away from its first
sense by successive shifts until, in may cases
,there is not a sign of
connection
between the sense that is finally developed and
that which the term had at the beginning .
(2) In plain terms the meaning reached
by the first shift may be shifted a second time,
and so on until
in the end the original
meaning is totally lost. e.g. treacle
注意：
这两种模式的名词解释照样要
记（这两种
模式只在填空，选择，出过题，还没有以名词解释形式考过）
154
问题：
In the
linguistic study, what are the sense relations and
what are the types of sense relations
?
答案
: A word which is related
to the other words is related to them in sense, so
it is called sense semantic
relations.
types of sense relations : polysemy, homonymy,
synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.
（五种
关系的名词解释要记住）
155.
问题：
Fruit
与
apples bananas,
pineapples, lychees
是什么语义关系
？
答案：
Hyponymy?
156.
问题：
Fruit
这一类里包含
apples, bananas,
pineapples, grapes
它们形
成了一种什么
样的理
论？
答案：
Semantic
field
157.
问题：有的时候在英语中存在着一种语
言不共容的现象，那就是反义词的不共容的现象，
那么这种不
能够相互
溶合，这样的词在反义词当中被称作什么词。比如说：
dead , alive ,
它们之间的反义关系是什么样的一种关系？
答案：
Contradictory
terms
它们之间形成的语义关系被称作
antonymy
158.
问题：
Contradictory terms
有一个最大的特点是什么？
答案：
Mutually exclusive and
are non-gradable, They cannot be used in
comparative degrees and do not
allow
adverbs of intensity like very to qualify them.
159.
问题：
反义词存在不存在一种包容现象？
答案：表明
two
poles, two extremes
，的反义词，它们之间存在一
种包容现象，这种包容现象被称作（
Middle
ground
）
e.g. huge
/ tiny
（
它们之间存在着
big , small , quite
big,
quite
small
）
e.g. young /
old
这类反义词被称为
(Contrary terms)
160.
问题：
fast
这个词
,
它表示紧的概念时
,
它
和
loose
是一组反义词，表示快的概念
时，它和
slow
是一组
反义词，
这样的
一种语义关系算什么样的语义
关系？
答案：
polysemy
161.
问
题：分析
deer , dear
这两个词是什么样的词？<
/p>
答案：
Homophone
162.
重点
:
homonyms
有哪三个类别的划分
？
1) perfect homonyms e.g. bank , bear2)
homographse.g.
bow, sow 3) homophones
e.g dear
, deer right, write, rite
163.
重点：
Origins of
Homonyms
1) Change in sound and
spelling 2) Borrowing3) Shortening
164.
问题：
shortening
可以表现在哪些分支结构构成上
? 1) Acronymy
2) Homonymy 3) Narrowing 4)
Idioms
重点问题：
Homonymy
和
Polysemy
的区别？（
未考过）
ic Features
of Homonyms e.g. Long time no sea. ( puns )
humor
, sarcasm or ridicule
重点：
名词解释
Synonyms Types of Synonyms :1) Absolute
synonyms 2) Relative synonyms
166.
重要简答题：
Sources
of Synonyms (
四大来源，
配以例子说明就可以了
) 1) Borrowing
2)Dialects and
regional English 3)
Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4)
Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
167.
重点：如何区分同义词？
(Discriminati
on of Synonyms ) 1) Difference in denotation2)
Difference in
connotation 3) Difference
in application antonymy :
1
68.
反义关系要点
:
反义词的三种类
别的划分
: What are the different types of
antonyms?
三种类别的名词解释
都要记
: 1)
Contradictory terms exclusive
特例
: they cannot be used in
comparative degrees and do not
allow
adverbs of intensity like very to qualifythem.
e.g. single/ married
(
有可能放在分析里去论述
) 2)
contrary terms
关键词
: two poles or extremes
middle ground e.g. rich / poor
(
中间还可出现
well-to-do)3)
Relative terms e.g. parent / child ,
predecessor/ successor
169.
问题
: What are
the characteristics of antonyms?1) Antonyms are
classified on the basis of semantic
opposition
特例
:Many words, though having
synonyms, do not find their semantic opposites,
e.g. read,
hit, house, book,
power
, magazine. Therefore, in a
language, there are a great many more synonyms
than antonyms. 2) A word which has more
than one meaning can have more than one antonym. (
这个
特点只适用于
polysemou
s )e.g. fast , dull 3) Antonyms differ in semantic
inclusion.(
这里讲的包容性是指一
个反义词必然包
含着另外一个反义词的绝对的概念
)
/ woman (man
除了指男性
,
还可以指整个人类
,
woman
算作人类的一
部分
,
所以
woman
也算在
man
的范畴内
,
因此
,woman
被
man
所包容
) dog / *****
( dog
除了指狗类通称
,
还可以指公狗
,
*****
是母狗
, dog
指狗类通
称的时
,*****
是狗的一种
,
因此我们说
*****
必
< br>然被
dog
所包容
,
所以
,
它们之间存在着
S
emantic inclusion)
(
语义上的包容性还没有考过
) e.g.
tall/short, old
/young 4) Contrary
terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree
of intenisty, so each has its own
corresponding
opposite.(
特例
)Some words can
have two different types of antonyms at the same
time,
one being the negative and the
other opposite,(
未考过
,
重要的选择或填空内容
) e.g. happy /
unhappy/ sad
( happy/ unhappy
之间的反义关系是
negative, happy/sad
之间的关系是
opposite )The use of
Antonyms
(
通
常用在习语当中
) e.g.
rain or sine high and loweasy come, easy go
170.
名词解释
:Hyponymy
(
未考过
,
很
重要的概念
) Hyponymy : 1) hyponymy deals
with the relationship of
semantic
inclusion. 2)That is to say, the meaning of a more
specific word is included in that of another
more general word. 3) These specific
words are known as hyponyms. The general words are
the
superordinate terms and the more
specific ones are subordinate terms.
注意
:hyponyms
和
subordinate
都是指下义词
.
比如说
:
考试给你
hammer
,
saw, spanner
这些词
,
然后再给你
tool
这个词
,
然后让你用语义关系的
理论加以分析这组词
?
分析
: hammer
, saw ,
spanner
都是
specific word,
它们和
tool
存在的关系是
semantic
inclusion ,
所以
too
是一个
superordinate ,
hammer
, saw, spanner
属于
subordinate
或者是
hyponyms. (
用
上下义语义关系进行理论分析的题
,
也是一
个考试的要点
) hyponymy (
它与语义场
semantic field
具有一定的联系
)
注意
:
上义词与下义词不是一成不变的
,
也不是绝对的
,
是一个相对的概念<
/p>
,
不同的语义场就存在不同的上下义关系
.
171.
重点
:
< br>Semantic Field (
名词解释
)
(
未考过
) Semantic
Field
: 1)The massive word store a
language
like English can be conceived
of as composed around a number of meaning areas,
some large, and
others
smaller
. Viewing the total meaning in
this way is the basis of field theory. 2) The
German linguist
Trier saw vocabulary as
?an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in
sense. Therefore, the ?words of
languages can be classified into
semantically related sets or fields. 3) According
to Trier‘s vision of fields,
the whole
vocabulary can be divided up into fields. 4)Words
in each field are semantically related and
define one another
.
注意
:
答语义场的简答题与它的名词解释相同
.
172.
问题
:
在反义关系中
,
同一个词具有不同的涵义
,
因此也就具有了多个不同的反义词
(
true or false )
问题
: true
e.g. fast, dull
问题
:
反义词分为哪三类
:1) Contradictory
terms 2) Contrary terms 3) Relative terms
173.
问题
:
可以用形容词比较级
,
可以用程度副词
加以修饰的反义词是
属于哪一类
?
答案
:
Contradictory terms
174.
问题
:
可以接纳一个
Middle ground,
这样的词是属于哪一类反义词
?
答案
< br>:contrary terms
175.
问题
: Husband
and wife , man and woman
这都是表示性别的反义词
,
但是他们属于同一类反义词的划分
,
对还是错
?
答
:
错
husband and
wife : relative terms man and woman :
contradictory terms
176.
问题
: empty
与
vacant
这两个词都表示空荡荡的感觉
, empty
< br>表示的是修饰容积
,
容量
,
没有填充物的空荡荡
,
而
vacant
表示的是一个
not occupied, not
taken
所以一般我们说没有放家具的房间叫做
vacant
apartment,
而
人去楼空的房间叫
empty
room,
请从同义词的角度对这种用法加以分析
?
(
书
111
页
)
答案
:
Differnece in
application : Empty,
vacant are synonyms, but their collocations are
not the same. Empty implies that
there
is no one or nothing inside while vacant suggests
that something or some place is not occupied.
177.
问题
:
反义词之间存在不存在包容性概念
semantic
inclusion,
请举例说明
?
答案
: e.g. man / woman , dog/
***** tall/ short, old /young
问题
:Face
具有不同的它有一个
primary
meaning
也有很多的
derived
meanings ,
那么
,
这种基本语义和派生语义体现在
face
的身上
,
是用哪一种方法论研究得出来的结果
?
答案
:
diachronic
approach
178.
像车轮
式一样进行发展的语义属于哪一种模式
?
举例说明
?
答案
: radiation e.g.
face, neck
问题
:harvest
它
的意思是
time of
cutting, time of harvest,
现在是指
yield of grain or food
是哪一种方法论得出的
.
答案
: diachronic approach
179.
问题
:huge/tiny,
这是一组反义词
,
请从反义关系的角
度来分析这是哪一种类型的反义词
,
并加以理论的解释
?
答案
:contrary terms
ms of this kind form part
of a scale of values between two poles and can
accommodate a
middle ground belong
neither to one pole nor to the other as shown
below: huge/very big/big/quite big
/
medium-sized/ quite small/small/ tiny(
这种分析题目易考
)
看例子
:
desk, table, chair
, cupboard ,
这些词
都算在什么范畴之内
,
加以理论分析
?
答案
:
这些词都属于
furnature, furnature
是
superordinate, desk , table
...
是
furniture
的
subordinate words
或者称作
hyponyms
,
它们之间形成的
relationship is
called hyponymy.
第
七章
: Changes in
Word Meaning
两个大的部分
: 1.
Types of Semantic changes
(
五种
)
(1)extension
extension
又被称作
generalization e.g
‘manuscript‘ original meaning ‘
handwritting
---
now ‘any
author‘s
writing whether written by
hand or typed with a type-
writer
only
barely‘
---
now
‘storeroom‘(2)narrowing narrowing
又被称作
specializatione.g.
just ‘deer‘
---
now ‘maize‘only ‘garage‘
any safe place
---
‘ a place
for storing cars‘ (3)
degradation
degradation
又被称作
pejoratione.g.
又被称作
ameliratione.g.
now elevated
to ‘delight,
pleasant‘
horses---
now means
‘high
-
ranking army
officer‘
---now
means
‘policeman‘(5) transfer e.g. paper (
p140
) the lip of a wound ( associated
transfer) purse
for ‘money‘ (associated
transfer ) clear
-sounding ( transfer of
sensations )
of
Changes
:1)extra linguistic factors(1)
historical reasona word is retained for a name
thogh the
meaning has changed because
the referent has changed. e.g.
ball-
pens, fountains pens increased scientific
knowledge and discovery are also important
factors. (2)
class reasonelevation and
degradation (3) Psychological reasonThe associated
transfer of meaning and
euphemistic use
of words Religious influence is another kind of
psychological need. e.g.
on p.143
2)linguistic factorsThe change of meaning may be
caused by internal factors within the
language system. Especially when a
phrase is shortened to one word which retains the
meaning of the
influx of borrowings
has caused some words to change in competition of
native
words eventually resulted in the
semantic division.
语义扩大的三个特例
:
1)polysemic words of modern
English 2)technical terms3)from proper
nouns to common words
181.<
/p>
问题
:
由普通变成专有名词算哪一类词类
变化模式
?
答案
:
Narrowing
182.
问题
:
词义缩小有几个特例
?
答案
:
有三个特例
1) From common words to
proper nouns e.g. city ---> the
City
pennisular --->the Pennisular profit --->the
Profit 2) shortening3) material nouns
183.
问题
:
以下的词的词义的变化由什么模式造成的
: 1)lust <
/p>
最早是指人的一种
pleasure
快乐
,
现在是指
sexual
pleasure,
这种词义变化属于哪一种模式
?
答案
: degradation.
2)Editorial article
缩写为
editorial
这是属于
哪一
种词义变化的模式
?
答案
: Narrowing 3) the Pennisular :
专指利比利亚半岛
,
那么这个词的形成是属于哪一种模式
?
答案
:Narrowing ,
因为它是由
common words
变成了
proper nouns , 4)
Sandwitch ,
最早是指三明治这个家
族
,
但是现在是指一切快餐类食品
,
这种词义的变化
属于哪一种答案：
Extension 5)
问题
:
多义词具有了不同的语义
,
这
种词义变化模式属于哪一类
?
答
案：
Extension 6)
问题
:liquor
最早是指所有液体的通称
,
现在专门指
alcoholic
drinking ,
这种词义的变化算哪一种模式
?
答案：
Narrowing or
specialization 7) car
最早是指马拉的战车
,
但是
现在就是指小轿车
,
那么这种词义的变化算是哪
一个原因造成的
?
答案：
Extra
linguistic
factor
中的
historical reason
8) computer
最早是指人的手工劳动的计算
,
后来是指占地面积非常大的计算机
,
现在的计算机就是指
micro
computer
,
那么
computer
词义的变化
算哪一个原因造成的
?
答案：
Extra linguistic fator
中的
historical
reason , 9)
这时的
computer
指代的是哪
一种模式
?
或者是说哪一种理据的构成
?
答案：
Etymological motivation
10)
在南北战争时期
,
南方的人一见到北方的人就胆战心惊
,
所以把北方
的人比作
rattle snake
,
那么南方人的
这种用
词
,
它是哪一种原因造成的
?
答案：
Extralinguistic
factor
中的
psychological
reason. 11)
问题
:
最早
的纸是来自非
洲的一种做纸的植物叫
papyrus,
后来就用
paper
这个词指代所有的纸张<
/p>
,
尽管造纸
的技术和原料变了
,
但是
paper
这个名词却被保留了下来
,
这算词义
变化的哪一种模式
?
答案
:trans
fer (
书
140
页
) 12)
问题
: Extention
又被称作
什么
,
哪一种
词类的变化最能说明这个原因
?
答案
:
generalization, from proper nouns to common nouns.
13)
问题
:Narrowing
最能表现词义缩小的是哪一类
?
答案
:
From common nouns to proper nouns
184.1)A concept is universal to all men
regardless of____A) culture B) race C) language D)
all of the
above
答案
:D
2)
问题
: Mouth
在
the mouth of
river
这个习语
,
它采用了哪一种
motivated
?
答案
:
semantically
motivated 3)
问题
: Radiation
and concatenation are different stages of
development
leading to polysemy ,
generally , radiation
和
concatenation
哪一
个出现的早
?
答案
:
radiation proceeds
concatenation
4)
问题
:Of the most words
meaning changes , which are most productive ,
which are most
common?
答案
:Extension and narrowing 5)
问题
: wife
由最早是指所有的
woman
变为了
married woman ,
这是属于哪一种
?
答案：
Narr
owing6)
问题
: Angel
由最早的
messenger
变成了
messenger by god ,
是哪一个
词义变化模式
?
答
案
: Elvervation 7)
问题
: silly
它现在的词义是
foolish,
它
是哪一种语义的变化模式
?
答案
:
Degradation 8)
问题
:
cukoo,
它既指布谷鸟的声音
,
也可以指布谷鸟
,
它是哪种理据构成的词
?
答案
:
Onomatopoeic Motivation
9)
问题
: Italian ,
它是哪一个语系分支当中的哪一个语族
?
答案
: Indo-European
language family Western set Italic
10)
问题
: Greek
属于哪一
个语系当中的哪一个小的语系当中的哪一个语族
?
答案
: Indo-European language family Western set
Hellenic 11)
问题
: fair and
square,
这属于
Idioms
中的
哪一个类别
?
答案：
Phonetic manipulation
中的
Rhyme
185.
问题：
What are
the characteristics of
antonyms?
答案：有四个：
1) Semantic opposition2) A word
which ahs more than one meaning can
have more than one antonym. 3) Semantic inclusion
4) Contrary
terms are gradable
antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so
each has its own corresponding
opposite.
186.
问题：
请你从语境的角度来分析？答案：
This is
wrong sentence, because
it has two
problems : 1)Ambiguity 2)Indication of reference
According to two functions of Context1)
Elimination of ambiguity2) Indication
of ReferenceThis sentence can be corrected as
follows : 1)what a
nice smell, the
chicken is ready to eat. 2) The chicken is
hungery, so the chicken needs foods. A concept
has referring expressions ____.A) one
B) many C)a few D) none of the
above.
答案：
B The grammatical
meanings of a word refer to the part of
the meaning of a word which indicate grammatical
concept or
relationship, such as ____ .
A) part of speech of a word B)Singular and plural
forms C) tense meaning
of verbs and
their inflectional forms D) All of the
above.
答案：
D)
187.
问题：
pick and
choose ,
它算习语中的哪一个类别？答案：
reiteration
（同义词叠用）
188.
问题：
rain or
shine
，
它算习语中的哪一类答案：
Juxtaposition
(
反义词叠用
)kith and kin
alliteration
，
might and main
，
alliteration cooked
这是哪一种
,
请从词缀的角度来加以
区别
cookedinflectional affixation
employer derivational affixes
名词解释：
connotative
meaning
: is also known as connnotation
What
are the differences between
hymonyms and polysemyms ? face
是多义词
, ball
不是
189.
论述题：
I met a write rwho is the relation of a
politician. I met a newspaper reporter who is the
brother of Senator Buckley.
以
上这两句话哪一话好，好在哪里？
(p119)
注意：答这个论
述题时先说哪句好，然后
加以分析，最后要答上下义关系
hyp
onymy
的名词解释。
190.
第
8
章
meaning and Context 1 Context
如何进行分类两种
: 1) Linguistic
context
，
In a narrow sense,
it refers to the words, clauses,
sentences in which a word appears. This is known
as linguistic context
which may cover a
paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire
book.2) Extra-linguistic context or
non-linguistic context IN a broad
sense, it includes the physical situation as well.
This is called
extra-linguistic or non-
linguistic context, which embraces the people,
time, place, and even the whole
cultural background. Context
这两个分类也就是它的名词解释
1)Linguistic
context Linguistic context can be
subdivided into lexical context and
grammatical context
。
Lexical
context refers to the words that occur
together with the word in question. The
meaning of the word is offten affected and defined
by the
neighbouring words. Grammatical
context In some cases, the meanings of a word may
be influenced by
the structure in which
it occurs. This is what we call grammatical
context.
191.
重点<
/p>
:
简答题
: What is
linguistic
context?(
这道简答题没考过
,
但是整个
context
考过
)
重点
:The role of
Context
语境的作用
?
三个作用
: 1) Elimination of
Ambiguity
，
Ambiguity often
arises due to polysemy and
homonymy2)
Indication of Referents Without clear context, the
reference can be very confusing. 3)
Provision of Clues for Inferring
Wordmeaning
在
3)
中又包括八种线索
: (1) Definition (2)
Explanation (3)
Example (4) Synonymy
(5) Antonymy (6) Hyponymy (7) Relevant details (8)
Word structure
第
九章
: English Idioms
这一章关键是要记习语，这些习语都要记。
192.
名词解释
:
Idioms
(
重点
)
(1)Idioms
consist of set phrases and short sentences which
are peculiar to
the language in
question and loaded with the native cultures and
ideas.(2)Strickly speaking, idioms are
expressions that are not readily
understandable from their literal meaning of
indiviudal elements. (3)In
forms idioms
may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang
expressions.
193.
9.1
Characteristics of Idioms
9.1.1
s
emantic unity
(
重点
)1) idioms each consist
of more than
one word. 2) in the idiom
words have lost their individual identity. 3)
quite often the idiom functions as
one
word. e.g.
9.1.2 Structural
stability
(
重点
) 1) the structure of an
idiom is to a large exten unchangeable. first ,
the constituents of idioms
cannot be
replaced. e.g.
not in fact )
Secondly, the word order cannot be
inverted or changed. e.g. twos and threes; tit for
tat; the lion‘s
share 3) Thirdly, the
constituents of an idioms cannot be deleted or
added to , not even an article. e.g.
ou
t of the question means ‘
impossible‘ in question ( being considered) 4)
Finally , many idioms are
grammatical
unanalysable, e.g. diamond cut diamond ( two
parties are equally matched ) like cures like
(as) sure as eggs ( quite certainly )
stepped up ( improve or enhance) in the raw (
naked ) turnn over
a new leaf ( begin a
new life ) draw the curtain ( end or concel )
9.2 Classification of
Idioms
The difficulty in using idioms
lies first in the difficulty of grasping the
elusive and figurative meaning, of
determining the syntactic functions of idioms e.g.
heart and soul
( adverbial ) Idioms may
be classified into five groups: 1) Idioms Nominal
in Nature 2) Idioms Adjectival
in
Nature3) Idioms Verbal in
Nature
（五类中最重要的）
194.
注意：考试的一个要点在这，
动词性习语有哪两类划分？
(1) phrasal
verbs :
短语动词
(2) verbal
phrases :
动
词短语
4) Idioms Adverbial in
Nature e.g.
pleasant or easy life 0 5)
Sentence Idioms 9.3 Use of Idioms The rhetoric
characteristics of idioms such
as :
stylistic features, rhetoric features and their
occasional variations. 9.3.1 Stylistic Feature;
Such
expressions were all colloquial
and informal and once confined to a limited group
of people engaged in
the same trade or
activity. But they proved terse, vivid, forcible
and stimulating so that later they broke
out of their bounds and gradualy gained
wide a result, their early stylistic features
faded
in part and many became part of
the common core of the language and are now used
in different
situations. 9.3.2
Rhetorical Features ( examples are very important
) 1) phonetic manipulation (1)
Alliteration (2) Rhyme 2) Lexical
manipuation (1) Reiteration ( duplication of
synonyms ) e.g. hustle and
bustle cut
and carve odds and ends (2) Repetition e.g. word
for word year in year out (3) Juxtaposition
( of antonyms ) e.g. up and down hit or
miss rain and shine 3. Figures of speech (1)
Simile e.g. as dead
as a doornail sleep
like a log (2) Metaphor Animals are used to refer
to people, e.g. grey mare snake in
the
grass Inanimate things to refer to people e.g. a
new broom flat tire the salt of the earth Things
to
refer to something else, e.g. bed of
dust a wet blanket black bottle Actions, state to
refer to abstract
ideas or other
actions, state, etc. e.g. sit on the fence cut the
ground from under sb. fall from grace (3)
Metonymy : idioms in which the name of
one thing is used for that of another associated
with it. (4)
Synecdoche: substituting
part for the whole e.g. fall into good hands earn
one‘s bread (5)
Personification e.g.
The pot calls the cattle back (6) Euphemism 9.3.3
Variations of Idioms 1)
Replacement 2)
Addition or deletion 3) Position-shifting 4)
Shortening 5) Dismembering
195.
问题：
classification of
idioms
可分为哪几类？答案：
Idioms may
be classified into five groups : 1) Idioms
Nominal in Natural 2) Idioms Adjectival
in Nature 3) Idioms Verbal in Nature 4) Idioms
Adverbial in
Nature 5) Sentence Idioms
196.
问题：
Sentence
idioms
如何分类
: (
选择
或填空还未考过
)
答案：
They embrace declarative,
interrogative, imperative and
exclamative terms of complexity Sentence Idioms
can be
further divided into simple,
compound and complex sentences.
注意：习语中的特例有可能是填空内容
:
(Exception1) This class contains
numerous prepositional phrases, which in nature
are either adjectival
or adverbial and
in many cases have both functions at the same
time. (Exception2 )Sentence Idioms are
mainly proverbs and sayings, including
colloquialisms and catchphrases, including
colloquialisms and
catchphrases.
(Exception3)In terms of complexity Sentence Idioms
can be further divided into simple,
compound and complex sentences.
(Exception4) forms and functions of idioms are not
necessarily
identical.
197.
问题：
What are the rhetorical
features of
idioms?
答案：
1)Phonetic
manipulation (1) Alliteration (2)
Rhyme
2) Lexical manipulation (1) Reiteration (2)
Repetition (3) Juxtaposition
198.
问题：
Figures of
speech (
大的修饰格
6
个<
/p>
,
小的修饰格
4
个
)
答案：
1) Simile 2) Metaphor 3) Metonymy
4) Synecdoche5) Personification 6)
Euphemism (1) humourous (2) ironic and sardonic in
tones (3)
derogatory (4) hyperbole
199.
重点简答题
:
Metonymy
和
Synecdoche ,
这两种修饰有何区别
? (
未考过<
/p>
)
答案：
Both metonymy
and
synecdoche involve substitution of
names, yet they differ in that the former is a
case of using the name
of one thing for
another closely associated with it and the latter
is that of substituting part for the whole
and vice versa.
习语的分析：
(
挑出习语加以分析，
它是哪一个类型
,
然后加以解释
) e.g. He goes
to the service ,
rain or
shine.
答：
In this sentence,
rain or shine, is an idiom. rain or shine is
composed in Juxtaposition.
It is Idiom
adverbial in nature
改写后：
He
goes to the service, no matter what the weather
looks like , no
matter what and no
matter what kind of difficulties.
200.
第十章
English Dictionaries
词典这一部分在填空或选择时出现的可能是最大的
1)
词典的种类
2)
每一种词典
< br>的特殊性也是考试的要点：比如：
CCELD
它的最大特
殊性是它的
extra column3)
每一种词典的
vocabulary stock
也是考试的要点：
大学英语词汇学个人总结重点
Chapter 1 The definition of lexicology
1.1 Lexicology
The term
lexicology contains two Greek morphemes: lexicon
and logie. The former means word and the
latter means learning or the study of.
The literal meaning of the term is the science of
words
Lexicology is the branch of
linguistics concerned with the study of the
vocabulary of a given language.
It
deals with words, their origin, development,
history, structure, meaning and application. In
short, it
is the study of the
signification and application of words.
1.1.1
Aims of the course of
English Lexicology
All the words in a
language together constitute what is known as its
vocabulary. Vocabulary is one of
three
elements of language: speech sounds, grammar and
vocabulary. In learning a foreign language,
it is very important to enlarge one‘s
vocabulary. In order to learn and use English
words correctly, those
who major in the
English language should acquire a basic knowledge
of English lexicology.
The aim of the course in English
lexicology is to give a systematic description of
the English vocabulary.
Concretely
speaking, English lexicology offers students an
insight into the origin and development of the
English vocabulary. It deals with
meanings of Modern English words and their changes
in the course of
historical
development. It discusses the problems of word-
structure and word-formation in English,
including the formation of new words
which have appeared since the Second World
war
. It also studies
the use
of English words, phrases and idioms.
1.1.2
The significance of a
course in English lexicology for language learning
is also evident.
The course
will help the learners to enlarge their vocabulary
and improve their ability to analyze and
use English words. English lexicology
as a theory of Modern English may be useful in
vocabulary study
because it derives
from practice and should guide practice since it
is known that language learning
requires practice. Students will use
the basic knowledge of English lexicology to
understand the material
already
familiar to them from English classes and apply it
in their further study of English.
1.2
The connection of Lexicology with other Branches
of Linguistics.
1)
With
phonetics
语音学
:
Phonetics is the study and systematic
classification of the sounds made in the spoken
utterance, that is,
the study of speech
sounds. It is closely related to lexicology.
Without sound there is no word because
every word is a unity of sound and
meaning.
2)
With grammar:
Vocabulary and grammar are organically
related to one another
. In learning a
language, attention to
grammar is as
important as attention to vocabulary. It is noted
that the vocabulary is the building
material of a language. The vocabulary
of a language assumes tremendous importance when
it comes
under the control of
grammar
, which is concerned with the
modification in form of words and the
combination of words into sentences.
3)
With
stylistics
文体学
:
Leech defines stylistics as the study
of the use of language in literature and considers
stylistics a
meeting ground of
linguistics and literary study. To put it here
concerning lexicology, Stylistics is the
study of optional variations in the
sounds, forms, or vocabulary of a language,
different situations of use,
or
different literary types. It should be mentioned
that lexicology studies stylistic variants on the
basis
of meanings of words and their
changes: synonyms, antonyms, etc. Stylistics is
concerned with
language variety
differing according to use rather than
user
. The same user may use different
varieties
for different purposes,
different situations, in conversation with
different people, to produce different
effects. The same subject matter can be
expressed in different styles, e.g.
(1)
His beloved friend has breathed his last
(
咽气了
)
(2) His
dear friend has passed away
（
与世长辞）
(3) His
close friend has died
（
死了）
(4) His old
guy has kicked the bucket.
（翘辫子）
(5) His old
friend has abandon the world/ join the choir
invisible/ go to Nirvana/pay the debt of
nature
（谢世
/
归寂
/
去极乐世界
/
了结尘缘）
4)
With historical linguistics:
Historical linguistics studies words
from the view point of diachrony, whereas
lexicology studies words
from the view
point of both synchrony and diachrony, but
especially of synchrony.
1.3 Two approaches to the study of
English lexicology.
There are two main
approaches to the study of English lexicology,
that is, synchronic and diachronic.
The
term synchronic means describing a language as it
exists at one point of time. The term diachronic
means concerned with historical
development of a language. A synchronic approach
is an approach to
the study of a
language at one period of time, whereas a
diachronic approach is an approach to the
study of the change in a language that
took place over a period of time.
The
following examples may illustrate the difference
between the two approaches and their
interrelation.
1)
Synchronically, words like January,
February, etc. are simply English words, the names
of the first
and second months of the
year
. Diachronically, they are borrowed
words. They were derived from Latin.
For instance, January is ― the door of
the year‖. The word was derived from Latin Janua
meaning door
.
August is the
name of the first Roman Emperor
,
Augustus Caesar
. It is said that
Augustus borrowed a
day from February
and gave August 31 days.
2)
Synchronically, words like woman,
Monday, etc. are simple words, a woman, not a man,
and
Monday, the second day of the week.
Diachronically, they existed as compounds in Old
English. The
word woman came from ― wif
+ mann‖. The word Monday came from ? mona + dag‖,
that is, the day of
the moon.
3)
Synchronically, we
consider words like eventful, talkative, etc. as
derivatives. Diachronically, they
were
hybrids, that is words which are made of two
parts, each from a different language. Event is a
Latin
root,
ful
is an old English suffix. Talk is an old English
root, ative is a Latin suffix.
4)
According to synchrony, we can see that
the word fond means like or affectionate, but
according to
diachrony we know that it
means foolish. We find a similar example in the
word comrade. The word
comrade
originally meant roommate, but now it means fellow
member of a political party.
Nowadays
most of the language teachers pay more attention
to the synchronic approach to the study of
the English vocabulary. They describe
what the English vocabulary is like, rather than
how it came to be
that way.
Chapter 2
The
sources of the English vocabulary
2.1
The English people and the English Language
The English
people are of a mixed blood. The early inhabitants
of the island called England now were
Britons. From the Britons the island
got its name of Britain. In 55 B.C, Britain was
invaded by the Roman
conqueror Julius
Caesar
. The Roman occupation lasted for
about four hundred years. In 410 A.D, all the
Roman troops returned to the Continent,
thus ending the Roman occupation of Britain. At
the beginning
of the fifth century
Britain was invaded by three tribes form the
Northern Europe: the Angles, Saxons
and
Jutes. These three tribes landed on the Britain
coast, drove the Britons west and north and
settled
down on the island. These three
tribes merged into one people. And the three
dialects they spoke
naturally grew into
a single language the English language.
However
, the English
language today reflects many centuries of
development. The political and social
events that have in the course of
English history so profoundly affected the English
people in their
national life have
generally had a recognizable effect on their
language. The Roman Christianization of
Britain in 597 brought England into
contact with Latin civilization and made
significant additions to the
English
vocabulary. The Scandinavian invasions resulted in
a considerable mixture of the two peoples
and their languages. The Norman
conquest made English for two centuries the
language mainly of the
lower classes
while the nobles and those associated with them
use French on almost all occasions. And
when English once more regained
supremacy as the language of all elements of the
population, it was
an English greatly
changed in both form and vocabulary from what it
had been in 1066. In a similar way
the
Hundred Years‘ War
, the rise of an
important middle class, t
he
Renaissance, the development of
England
as a maritime power
, the expansion of
the British Empire, and the growth of commerce and
industry, of science and literature,
have each in their way, contributed to the
development of he
language. References
in sc
holarly and popular works to
Indian English‖, Caribbean English, West African
English, and other regional varieties
point to the fact that the political and cultural
history of the English
language is not
simply international history of quite divergent
societies which have caused the language
to change and become enriched as it
responds to their own special needs.
2.2 Evolutional periods of the English
Language
This
history of the English Language is divided into
three periods. The period from 450 to 1150 is
known as old English. It is sometimes
described as the period of full inflections, since
during most of this
period the case
endings of the noun, the adjectives, and the verbs
are preserved more or less
unimpaired.
From 1150 to 1500, the language is known as Middle
English. During the period, the
inflections, which had begun to break
down toward the end of the Old English period,
become greatly
reduced, and it is
consequently known as the period of leveled
inflections. The language since 1500 is
called Modern English. A large part of
the original inflectional system has disappeared
entirely and we
therefore speak of it
as the period of lost inflections. The progressive
decay of inflections is only one of
the
developments that mark the evolution of English in
its various stages.
2.3 Some characteristics of Old English
The
pronunciation of old English words differs
somewhat from that of Modern English words.
Especially the long vowels have changed
a great deal. Take the old English word stan for
instance. The
word stan is the same
word as the Modern English word stone, but the
vowel is different. The a sound
has
shifted to the sound of o in Modern English. Other
vowels have also undergone changed. e.g.
Fot ( O. E) ----- foot (
Mod. E)
Cene ( O. E) ---- keen ( Mod.
E)
Fyr ( O.E ) ----- fire (
Mod . E )
Hu ( O. E ) -----
how ( Mod. E )
Old English represented the sound of th
by p and
as in the word wip
( O. E ) ---- with ( Mod . E ), and
the
word
a ( O. E ) --- then (
Mod. E ), the sound of sh by sc in sceap ( O. E )
--- sheep ( Mod. E ) or
sceotan ( O. E
) ---- shoot ( Mod. E ), and the sound of k by c
as in cynn ( O. E ) --- kin ( Mod. E ) or nacod
( O. E ) --- naked ( Mod. E).
The vocabulary
of Old English consisted mainly of Anglo Saxon
words. But when the Norman Conquest
in
1066 brought French to England, much of the
English vocabulary was replaced by words borrowed
from French and Latin. During this
period, much of the Old English was no longer in
use, but the basic
elements of the
vocabulary have remained. They express fundamental
concepts of human life, such as :
mann
( man), wif ( wife), cild ( child ), hus ( house
), benc ( bench), mete ( meat, food), leaf ( leaf
),
fugol ( fowl ), strang ( strong ),
etan ( eat ), drincan ( drink ), libban ( live ),
etc.
Old
English is a synthetic
合成的
language which shows the relation of
words in a sentence largely by
means of
inflections while Modern English is an
analytic
分解的
language which indicates the relation
of
words in a sentence by means of
order
, prepositions or auxiliary verbs,
rather than by inflections. For
instance:
It's
very important to notice right away that it is NOT
the position of the word in the sentence that
makes
it take the form sé
or
?
one; it's the role that the word is
playing in the sentence. To make this
clear
, take
a look at the
following sentences:
Sé
sunu
lufode ?
one f?der
.
Lufode sé
sunu
?
one f?der
.
?
one f?der lufode
sé
sunu.
?
one
f?der sé
sunu lufode.
Sé
sunu ?
one
f?der lufode.
These sentences all mean
exactly the same thing. In other words, in this
kind of simple sentence, ?
one
tells us that the noun it's associated
with is the object,
sé
tells us that the noun
it's associated with is
the subject.
Not all demonstrative pronouns change their form
to indicate subject and object in this way.
The
nouns, and these ones
don't make any changes to either noun or
demonstrative between subject and
object.
Se f?der lufode
?
?t wí
f,
?t
wí
f lufode ?
one f?der
,
.
?t
wí
f
Modern English depends upon word order
to show the relations of words in a sentence.
Different word
order may result in
different meaning. The sentence ― The police
arrested the thief‖ is completely
opposite to the sentence ― the thief
arrested the police‖ in meaning. So, in contrast
with Modern English,
Old English is a
synthetic language.
2.4
Some characteristics of Middle English
The middle English period
extends from 1150 to 1500. This period was marked
by important changes
in the English
language. The Norman Conquest was the cause of
this change. The change of this period
had a great effect on both grammar and
vocabulary. In grammar English has changed from a
highly
inflected language to an
analytic language. In this period many old English
were lost, and thousands
upon thousands
of borrowed from French and Latin appeared in the
English vocabulary.
French influence on the English
vocabulary is much more direct and observable.
More than half of the
English
vocabulary is derived from Latin. Some of them
have come directly, but a great many came
through French. Borrowed words from
French in this period are beef, pork, bacon,
air
, beauty, music,
brown,
painting, colour
,etc which is further
discussed in the latter sections.
Middle English represented
the sound of c by ch as in the word child
(M.E)---cild ( O.E), and the sound
of
cw by qu as in the word queen ( M.E) --- cwen (
O.E).
All in
all, at the beginning of the period English is a
language that must be learned like a foreign
tongue, at the end it is Modern
English.
2.5 Some
characteristics of Modern English
The Modern English period extends from
1500 to the present day. We may divide this period
into two
parts: the early Modern
English and the late Modern English period. The
Early Modern English period
extends
from 1500 to 1700. The chief influence of this
time was the great humanistic movement of the
Renaissance. In this period the study
of the Latin and Greek classics was stressed, so
the influence of
Latin and Greek on
English was great. Some words as conspicuous,
disability, disregard, emancipate,
expectation exist, external came
directly from Latin. Others, like chaos, crisis,
emphasis, system are of
Greek origin.
The
Late Modern English period started after 1700. The
eighteenth century in England was a time of
stabilizing and purifying the English
language. In the 18th century French greatly
influenced English.
The number of
French words in the period from 1650 to 1800
increased rapidly. The following words are
useful examples: ballet, cartoon,
champagne, cohesion, dentist, patrol, publicity,
routine, etc.
The territorial expansion of the
English Empire in this period resulted in the
expansion of the English
vocabulary.
Thus, there are American Indian words, caribou,
hickory, moose, papoose, etc. There are
also English Mexican words, such as,
maize, potato, tobacco, hammock, etc. From Peru
come puma,
quinine, etc. From Brazil
come cayenne, jaguar
, etc. From India ,
calico, coolie, mandarin, etc come into
the English. From Africa come banana,
gumbo, zebra, etc.
The nineteenth and
twentieth centuries are a period of rapid
expansion for the English vocabulary in
the history of English language.
In
this period, many changes have taken place.
Especially, the great development of science and
technology is reflected in the English
vocabulary, apart from which there are changes in
industry, in
political and social lives
and other all which have contributed a great deal
to the English vocabulary.
The following words may be
clearly found in this period. The words cinema and
moving picture date
from 1899. The
words radio meaning a receiving station and
television date from 1923 and 1904
respectively. Some words came into the
English vocabulary between 1914 and 1918, like air
raid,
antiaircraft
gun
高射炮
, gas
mask
防毒面具
, etc.
Since the
second world war the English vocabulary has been
affected powerfully by social, political,
economic, especially scientific and
technical changes. Thousands of new words are
added, such as
hamster
,
coopetition, AIDS, hacker
, e-mail,
e-commerce, e-pal, google, Wag, Youtube, blog,
crunk,
dooce( fired for blog) Existing
words acquire new meanings, and old words die out.
To sum up,
rapid vocabulary expansion in this period is an
important feature of Modern English.
2.6 Words of
Native Origin
The English vocabulary may be
classified into two great groups according to its
origin: native words
and borrowed
words.
Native words are the foundation and the
core of the English vocabulary. In structure they
are mostly
monosyllabic
单音节
words. In meaning they express the
fundamental concepts dealing with everyday
objects and things.
1) The polysemic
feature
多义性
Native words have existed
for a very long time, for centuries. They are
likely to remain unchanged for
a long
time. They are polysemic words, that is, they have
many meanings.
The verb put, for instance, has twelve
meaning in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary
English.
a. to
move, set, lay or fix
You put too much salt in your food.
b. to turn,
guide, direct ( a boat or horse ) in a stated
direction
The
captain put the ship back to port for repairs
c. to cause to
be
He put his books in order
d. to express something in
words
I want to
know how to put this in English.
e. to express officially
for judgment or decision
The lawyer put several questions to the
witness.
f. to
write down, make
What shall I put at the end
of the sentence?
g. to make busy
Put all the boys to work
2) The collocability of
native words
搭配能力
Many commonly-used expressions and
phrases in English are made up of native words.
Take the word
eye for example:
An eye for an eye-- a punishment which
hurts the criminal in the same way as he hurt
someone else.
To be in the public
eye
—
to be often seen in
public or on TV
, or mentioned in
newspapers.
To catch someone‘s
eye—
to draw someone‘s
attention to oneself
To do
someone in the eye
—
to trick
someone
Easy on the
eye
—
attractive, pretty
Have an eye
for
—
to have the ability to
see
In one‘s mind‘s eye—
in one‘s imagination
In the eye of the
law
—
according to the law
To keep an eye out
for
—
to try to notice and
remember
To look someone in
the eye
—to look straight into someone‘s
face
Mind your
eye
—
look out! Be careful!
To see eye to eye
with
—
to agree completely
With half an
eye
—
without looking closely
3) Word-forming ability of native words
Native words in
Modern English can form a great number of
derivatives. The word four , for instance
has brought such derivatives, as
fourth, fourthly, fourteen, forty, fortieth. So is
the word water
, like
watery,
watered, watering, waterless, etc are derivatives.
Native words in
Modern English can also form many compounds. For
instance, the word water has the
following compounds:
Waterline, waterfall,
waterman, waterway, waterproof, waterway, water-
ski, waterskin.
2.7
Borrowed words in the English vocabulary
So called borrowed words or loan-words
refer to the words that are taken from foreign
languages. Latin,
Greek, French are the
three languages that have contributed most to the
English vocabulary. The
loan-words have
come through conquest, commerce, travel,
literature, mass media
传播方式
and many
other ways.
2.7.1 Four groups of loan-words
Foreign borrowing may be divided into
four groups according to their
character
.
(1) Aliens
(2) Denizens
(3) translation-loans
(4) semantic borrowings
1)
Aliens are words borrowed from a
foreign language without any change of the foreign
sound and
spelling. They are usually
considered as foreign words. For instance:
automobile, coup de main, coup d‘
edat,
elite, trou-de-loup, beche-de-mer
2)
Denizens are words taken from a foreign
language with a transformation of the foreign
sound and
spelling into native forms.
They are not foreign words, but have been
naturalized into native sound and
spelling. Many Scandinavian words are
denizens such as get, give, egg, take, sky, skin,
skill, etc.
Hybrids are also denizens,
because they are words consisting of two parts
which are from different
languages,
such as: sociology ( a French element social+ a
Greek element
–
logy),
hydrophane ( a Greek
element hydro+ a
Latin element plane).
3)
Translation-loans are words borrowed
from foreign languages by means of translation.
Translation
–
loans can be found in
English compound, sometimes English compounds are
borrowed
from other languages, but
their components are translated into English. They
are called loan translation
or
translation-loans. The compound black
humor
, for instance, is a translation-
loan from French humor
noir
4)
Semantic borrowings
Words which have acquired a new meaning
under the influence of other language are called
semantic
borrowings. The word gift in
the old English means the price of a wife while
the Scandinavian word gift
means gift,
present. The word has acquired a new meaning under
the influence of the Scandinavian
language. Four modernizations are
semantic borrowing from China, so is the word
post-liberation.
2.8 The foreign elements in the English
vocabulary.
There are many foreign elements in the
English vocabulary: the Scandinavian element, the
French
element, the Latin element, the
Greek element, and other foreign elements.
2.8.1
The Scandinavian
element in the English vocabulary
Towards the close of the
eighth century, the Danes appeared in England,
first as raiders, then as
conquerors
and settlers. At that time the country was
divided, the northern half being ruled by the
Danes, the southern half by the Anglo-
saxons. The English King Alfred the great was
obliged to
recognize the Danish rule
over the territory covering two thirds of modern
England. In 1016, after Alfred
died, a
Danish King , Canute, became King of all England
as well as of Denmark and Norway.
The language spoken by the Danes was
similar to the language of England. Words like
father
, mother
,
man, wife, summer
,
winter
, house, town, tree, grass, come,
ride, and many others were common to
both languages, though the words were
similar
, the endings were different.
An interesting
feature of the language is a number of Danish
forms existing side by side with the
English forms in the English
vocabulary, e.g.
English
Danish
Shirt
skirt
Drop
drip
Blossom
bloom
Sit
seat
No
nay
From
fro
Rear
raise
The
Scandinavian words that made their way into
English were not only nouns, adjectives, but also
pronouns, prepositions, adverbs, and
verbs. Here is a brief list of the Scandinavian
borrowings:
Nouns:
birth, bull, gap, guess, guest, leg,
score, sister
, skill, skin
Adjectives: fast, flat, ill, low,
thick, sly, tight, ugly, weak
Pronouns:
both, some, their
, them, they
Prepositions: fro, till
Adverbs: aloft, seemly
Conjunctions: though
Verbs:
are, call, die, drown, get, give, lift, raise,
scare, take
It should be noted that
most of the Scandinavian borrowings belong to the
colloquial language. These
words have
become the common core of the English vocabulary.
They suggest the familiar character of
the words.
2.8.2
The French element in the English
vocabulary
When in January 1066, Edward
the confessor died childless, England was again
faced with the choice of
a
successor
. The day after Edward‘s death
Harold was elected king. William, the
d
uke of Normandy was
a
second cousin to the late king. While William was
on a visit to England, Edward had promised him
that
he should succeed him. It followed
that at last only by force did William obtain the
English crown.
The conquerors became masters of the
country for a long time and left a deep influence
upon the
English language. The Normans
belonged to a race of Scandinavian origin, but
during the residence in
Normandy they
had give up their native language and had adopted
the French dialect of that region. The
Normans introduced into England a
variety of the French language called Norman-
French.
The importance positions in
the government, at the courts and in the churches
were filled by French
–
speaking supporters of the
conquerors. These conditions brought by the Norman
Conquest opened the
door for a great
influx of French words. French was spoken by the
upper class of England and by the
landowners attached to the courts and
in the counties. But the common people in England
spoke English.
Therefore, England
became a bilingual country at that time.
It is known that the influence of the
French language upon the English language is
direct and evident.
These two languages
existed side by side for a long time in England
and the transference of French
words
into the English vocabulary could not be avoided.
In fact, the number of French words that came
into English was very great in the
Middle English period and even after this period.
French loan-
words in the Middle English period:
(1)
words connected with government: government,
administration, state, crown, authority, court,
council, parliament, assembly, empire,
etc.
(2) Words connected with religion:
religion, theology, prayer
, dean,
lesson, passion, clerk, clergy,
devotion, faith, etc.
(3)
Words connected with law: justice, judgment,
crime, evidence, proof, blame, arrest, seize,
pledge,
condemn, etc.
(4) Words connected with army: army,
peace, enemy, arms, captain, defense,
soldier
, guard, spy, etc.
(5) Words connected with fashion and
food: dress, cloak, collar
, button,
boots, diamond, beef, pork,
mutton,
bacon, biscuit, cream, sugar
, orange,
lemon, etc.
(6) Words connected with
arts, literature: art, painting, learning, beauty,
color
, figure, image, tone,
tragedy, preface, title, story,
paper
, pen, study, etc.
The
adoption of French words is universal, which can
be shown in many aspects, some lists of French
words are given below:
Nouns:
action,
age, air
, business,
carpenter
, city, coast, country,
courage, debt, dozen, error
, fame,
flower
, force, grief,
honor
, hour
, joy,
labor
, manner
, marriage,
sum, task, unity, waste, etc.
Adjectives: able, active, brief, calm,
certain, common, cruel, double, eager
,
easy, firm, foreign, gay,
gentle,
gracious, honest, large, natural, nice, original,
perfect, plain, secret, solid, single, special,
usual,
etc.
Verbs: aim,
allow, apply, arrange, arrive, change, close,
continue, count, cover
, cry, declare,
defeat,
destroy, enjoy,
enter
, form, furnish, increase, marry,
move, pass, pay, practice, prefer
,
refuse,
remember
, reply,
etc.
Phrases: to take leave, on the
point of, according to, by heart, in vain, etc.
French loan-words after the Middle
English period:
French loans continued
to enrich the English vocabulary after the Middle
English period, especially in the
eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. The words are connected chiefly with
arts, with food
and drink, with fashion
and with diplomacy.
Words
related to arts are: renaissance, repertoire,
resume, etc.
Word connected
with food and drinks: café
, chef, menu,
restaurant, etc.
Words connected with
fashion, dress, and material: blouse, beret, etc.
Words in diplomatic terms: attaché,
charge, d‘affaires, communism, dossier
,
etc.
The common words
adopted in the twentieth century: limousine,
revue, avant-garde, black humor
,
extraordinaire, negotiant, etc.
2.8.3
The Latin Element in
the English vocabulary:
The Latin element together
with the Greek element are called the classical
elements in the English
vocabulary. The
Latin element came into the English vocabulary at
different times.
Latin words relating
to domestic life: kettle, table, pillow, bench,
cup, dish, line, mustard, butter
,
onion,
etc.
The greatest influence of Latin on
English was showed by words connected with the
Christianity: altar
,
angel,
candle, canon, discipline, martyr
,
mass, minister
, nun, offer
,
organ, rule, temple, etc.
The influence of the renaissance on
English was great and far-reaching, along with
which come a large
of number words:
allusion, atmosphere, autograph, disability,
disrespect, expectation, vacuum, recipe,
locomotive, motor
,
tractor
, appropriate, expensive,
external, habitual, impersonal, insane, adapt,
consolidate, disregard, emancipate,
exert, exist, extinguish, etc.
A great many Latin
abbreviations
缩写
used in common today were introduced
too.
e.g ( exempli gratia)--- for
example, i.e ( id est). --- that is to say, a.m (
ante meridiem )
—
before noon,
p.m ( post meridiem
)
—
afternoon, v.v ( vice
versa )
–
the other way
round, etc ( et cetcra )
—
and
so on,
cf. ( confer)
–
compare, viz.( vide licet
)
—
that is to say, in other
words, pct ( per centum
)
—
per cent.
2.8.4
The Greek element in the English vocabulary
The Greek element is an
important element in the English vocabulary. The
influx of Greek words into
English
began at the time of the Renaissance. Many Greek
borrowings came in chiefly through the
medium of Latin or French.
a.
words relating to
literature: rhetoric, drama, poet, thesis,
antithesis, comedy, etc.
b.
words relating to linguistics:
diachrony, synchrony, lexicon, lexis, semantics,
morphology, syntax,
phonology,
grammar
, etc.
c.
Words relating to natural sciences:
mathematics, mechanics, dynamics, electric,
physics, biology,
etc.
d.
Words relating to social sciences:
economics, ethics, basis, democrat, category,
theory, etc.
e.
Words
relating to medicine: enteritis, hepatitis,
hypertension, etc.
f.
Some
words are based on Greek roots: bio (
life)
—
biology, biochemistry
Gam (
marriage)
—
monogamy,
polygamy, bigamy, etc. gen ( to produce, give
birth to)
—
genesis, genius,
genuine, etc. anthrop ( man,
human)
—
anthropology, etc.
auto ( self )
—
automobile,
autograph, etc. geo
( earth
)
—
geography, geology,
geometry, etc.
Phone (
voice)
—
phoner
,
phone-mate, phono-record, etc
2.8.4
The other elements in the English
vocabulary
English has
borrowed words from more than 50 language in the
course of its historical development.
Besides Latin, Greek, and French, other
foreign languages such as Italian, Spanish,
German, Dutch,
Chinese, Japanese,
Russian, Arabic, African, American Indian, etc
have also influenced the English
language to a certain degree.
English people often
traveled in Italy during the time of Renaissance.
There were a great many Italian
words
introduced: balcony, design, corridor
,
violin, tenor
, bass, influenza,
umbrella, volcano, bankrupt,
charlatan,
gala, macaroni, infantry, baston.
English also borrowed some words from
Spanish: cafeteria, tango, guerrilla, rancho,
rodeo, silo, patio,
estampida, etc.
Words from Dutch: booze, tackle, reef,
freight, dock, deck, keel, lighter
,
skipper
, sloop, etc.
From
Arabic came words like: admiral, lemon,
sugar
, zero, sultan, bint, sofa, etc.
From Africa came words: gorilla,
guines, zebra, etc.
From American
English: squash, chili, tomato, etc.
From Russian came: steppe, soviet,
troile, intelligentsia, etc.
From
Japanese came words: kimono, tatami, tycoon, judo,
etc.
From China English borrowed: tea,
chopsticks, litchi, kowtow, mahjong, typhoon,
ketchup, etc.
Chapter 3
Lexical classes and
Morphology
形态学
1
Introduction
A
word is dead
When it is said,
Some say.
I say it just
Begins to live
That day.
--
Emily Dickinson, ― a word‖
What is a word? What do you know when
you know a word? Suppose you hear someone say
morpheme
词素
and
haven
’
t the slightest idea
what it means, and you don
’
t
know what the smallest unit of
linguistic meaning is called. A
particular string of sounds must be united with a
meaning, a meaning
must be united with
specific sounds in order for the sounds or the
meaning to a word in our mental
dictionaries. Once you learn both the
sounds and their meaning, you know the word. It
became an entry
in you mental lexicon,
part of your linguistic knowledge.
Someone who doesn‘t know English would
not know where one word begins or ends in an
utterance like
Thecatsatonthemat. A
speaker of English has no difficulty in segmenting
the stream of sounds into six
individual words: the, cat, sat, on,
the, and mat. Similarly, a speaker of the American
Indian language
knows that kwapmuknanuk
( which means ― they see us‖) is just one
word.
The lack of pauses
between words in speech has provided humorists and
songwriters with much
material. For
instance, there was a song popular during World
War II.
Mairzy doats and
dozy doats
Mares eat oats
and does eat oats
And liddle lamzy
divey
and
little lambs eat ivy
A
kiddley-
divey too,
a
kid‘ll eat ivy too,
Wouldn‘t
you?
Wouldn‘t
you?
Similarly, the comical
hosts of the show Cartalk, aired on National
public Radio close the show by
reading
a list of credits that includes the following cast
of characters.
Copyeditor
Adeline Moore
Add
a line more
Accounts
payable
Ineeda Czech
I need a check
Pollution control
Maury Missions
More emissions
Purchasing
Lois Bidder
Lowest bidder
Statistician
Marge Innovera
Margin of error
Russian chauffeur
Picov Andropov
pick up and
drop off
Legal firm
Dewey, Cheethum and Howe
Do we cheat
them and how
This shows
that in a particular language, the form( sounds
and pronunciation) and the meaning of a
word are like two sides of a coin. For
instance, in English the sounds of the letters
bear and bare
represent four homonyms (
here also called homophones), different words with
the same sounds, as
shown in the
sentences:
She
can‘t be
ar children
She
can‘t bear children
Bruin
bear is the mascot
He stood
there
—
bare and beautiful
Sometimes we think we know
a word even though we don‘t know what it meanings.
In an introductory
linguistics class,
most of the 400 students had heard the word
antidisestablishmentarianism and
believed it to be the longest word in
the English language. Yet, most of the students
were unsure of its
meaning.
Antidisestablishmentarianism originated
in the context of the nineteenth century Church of
England,
where
state church
of England. The movement succeeded in England, but
failed in Ireland and Wales, with the
Church of Ireland being disestablished
in 1871 and the Church of Wales in 1920.
Antidisestablishmentarian members of
the Free Church of Scotland delayed merger with
the United
Presbyterian Church of
Scotland in a dispute about the position of the
Church of Scotland. The term has
largely fallen into disuse, although
the issue itself is still current
Both children
and adults have to be told that
antidisestablishmentarianism is the longest word
in
English or discover it through an
analysis of entries in a dictionary. Actually,
should they wish to
research the
question,
they would find that the
longest word in Webster‘s Seventh International
Dictionary is
pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis, a
disease of the lungs.
Since each word is a sound-meaning
unit, each word stored in our mental lexicon must
be listed with
its unique phonological
representation, which determines its
pronunciation, and its meaning. Each word
in your mental lexicon includes other
information as well, such as whether it is a noun,
a pronoun, a verb,
an adjective, and
adverb, a preposition, or a conjunction. That is,
its grammatical category, or syntactic
class, is specified. You may not
consciously know that a form like love is listed
as both a verb and noun,
but a speaker
has such knowledge, as shown by the phrases I love
you and you are the love of my life.
If
such information were not in the mental lexicon,
we would not know how to form grammatical
sentences, nor would we be able to
distinguish grammatical from un-grammatical
sentences. The
classes of words, the
syntactic categories
—
such as
nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and so
on
—
and
the
semantic properties of words, which represent
their meanings, will be discussed in later
sections.
2. Content words and function
(grammatical ) words
实意词与功能词
The English
language makes an important distinction between
two kinds of words
—
content
words and
function words. Nouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs are the content words. These
words denote concepts
such as objects,
actions, attributes, and ideas that we can think
about like children, purple, etc. Content
words are sometimes called the open
class words because we can and regularly do add
new words to
these classes. A new word,
google, entered English with the internet
developing. Verbs like disrespect
and
download entered the language quite recently, as
have nouns like bytes and email.
There are other classes of
words that do not have clear lexical meaning or
obvious concepts
associated with them,
including conjunctions
连接词
such as and, or
, and but;
prepositions
介词
such as
in and of; the
articles the, an/ a, and pronouns such as it and
he. These kinds of words are called
functions words because they have a
grammatical function. For example, the articles
indicate whether
a noun is
definite
—
the boy or a boy.
The preposition of indicates possession as in the
book of yours. But
this word indicates
many other kinds of relations too.
Function words are
sometimes called closed class words. It is
difficult to think of new conjunctions,
prepositions, or pronouns that have
recently entered the language. The small set of
personal pronouns
such as I, me, mine,
he, she, and so on are part of this class. With
the growth of the feminist movement,
some proposals have been made for
adding a neutral singular pronoun that would be
neither masculine
nor feminine and that
could be used as the general form. If such a
pronoun existed, it might have
prevented the department chairperson in
a large university from making the incongruous
statement:
―
We
will hire the best person for the job regardless
of his sex‖.
The
difference between content and function words is
illustrated by the following test that circulated
recently over the Internet:
Please count the number of F‘s in the
following text:
FINISHED
FILES ARE THE
RESULT OF YEARS OF
SCIENTIFIC
STUDY COMBINED WITH THE
EXPERIENCE OF YEARS
What this little test
illustrates is that the brain treats content and
function words differently.
The two
classes of words also seem to function differently
in slips of tongue produced by normal
individuals. In the early stage of
development, children often omit function words
from their speech, for
example ― doggie
barking‖. What is more, these two classes of words
have different functions in
language.
Content words have semantic meaning, function
words play a grammatical role.
3. Morphemes:
The minimal units of Meaning
― They gave me‖ Humpty Dumpty
continued, ― for an
un
-
birthday
present‖
― I beg your pardon?‖ Alice said with a
puzzled air
.
― I am not offended,‖ said
Humpty Dumpty.
― I mean, what is an
un
-
birthday
present‖
― A present given when it isn‘t your
birthday, of course‖
Lewis carroll, Through the
Looking-glass
In the dialogue above,
Humpty Dumpty is well aware that the prefix un-
means not as further shown in
the
following pairs of words:
Desirable
undesirable
Likely
unlikely
Inspired
uninspired
Happy
unhappy
Developed
undeveloped
Sophisticated
unsophisticated
Webster‘s Third New International
Dictionary lists about 2700 adjectives beginning
with un.
Words have internal
structure, which is rule-governed. Uneaten,
unadmired, and ungrammatical are
words
in English, but eatenun, admiredun, and
grammaticalun are not, because we do not form a
negative meaning of a word by suffixing
un buy by prefixing it.
The study of the internal
structure of words, and of the rules by which
words are formed is
morphology. This
word itself consists of two morphemes, morph
+ology. The suffix
–
ology
means
―science of or branch
of knowledge concerning‖. Thus, the meaning of
morphology is the science of word
forms.
Part of knowing a language is knowing
its morphology. Like most linguistic knowledge,
this is
generally unconscious
knowledge.
A single word may be
composed of one or more morphemes:
One morpheme
boy , desire
Two morphemes
boy+ ish, desire+ able
Three morphemes
boy+ish+ness, desire+able+ity
Four morphemes
gentle+man+li+ness
More than four
morphemes
anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism
What is a morpheme? A morpheme, the
minimal linguistic unit, is thus an arbitrary
union of a sound and
a meaning that
cannot be further analyzed. Therefore, every word
in every language is composed of one
or
more morphemes. However
, There is a
common view that words are the basic meaningful
elements
of a language, which may be
reflected when Samuel Goldwyn, the pioneer
moviemaker
, once,
announ
ced ― in two words:
im
-
possible‖. Linguistically
speaking, Goldwyn should have said: ― in two
morphemes: im-
possible
”
.
3.1 Bound and free morphemes
We can make a broad
distinction between two types of morphemes. Free
morphemes and Bound
morphemes. Free
morphemes refer to the morphemes which can stand
by themselves as single words,
e.g.
open and door
. Bound morphemes refer to
those which cannot normally stand alone, but which
are
typically attached to another form,
e.g. re-, -ist, ist, -s.
The free morphemes can be generally
considered as the set of separate English word-
forms. When
they are used with bound
morphemes, the basic word-form involved is
technically known as the stem.
For
example:
Undressed
carelessness
Un-
dress
ed
care
less
ness
Prefix
stem
suffix
stem
suffix
suffix
Bound
free
bound
free
bound
bound
What we have
described as free morphemes fall into two
categories. The first category is that set of
ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs
which we think of as the words which carry the
content of
messages we convey, these
free morphemes are called lexical morphemes, e.g.
boy, man, house, tiger
,
long, yellow, sincere, open.
The other group
of free morphemes are called functional morphemes,
like and, but, when, because,
on,
near
, above, in, the, that, etc. This
set consists largely of the functional words in
the language such
as conjunctions,
prepositions, articles and pronouns.
The set of affixes which fall into the
bound category can also be divided into two types.
One is
derivational morphemes. These
are used to make new words in the language. A list
of derivational
morphemes will include
suffixes such as the ish in foolish, the
–
ly in badly and the
–
ment in payment.
It will also include prefixes such as
re-, pre-, ex-, dis-, un- and so forth.
The second set
of bound morphemes contains what are called
inflectional morphemes. These are not
used to produce new words in the
English language, but rather to indicate aspects
of the grammatical
function of a word.
Inflectional morphemes are used to show if a word
is plural or singular
, if it is past
tense or not, and if it is a
comparative or possessive form. Examples are
jumped, boys, sitting, she is
smaller
, the smallest,
Jerry‘s friend. To put is simply, they are
–
ing, -s, -er
,-est, -ed,
-
?s. At the present
stage of
English history, there are a total of eight bound
inflectional affixes. It should be noted that in
English, all the inflectional morphemes
are suffixes.
English
inflectional morphemes
Examples
-s
the third
person singular present
She
waits at home
-ed
past tens
She waited at
home
-ing
progressive
she
is eating the donut
-en
past participle
Mary has eaten the donuts
-s
plural
She ate the nonuts
-
?s
possessive
Disa‘s hair
curly
-er
comparative
Disa has shorter hair that karin
-est
superlative
Disa has the shortest hair
Armed with all
these terms for the different types of morphemes,
we can now take most sentences of
English apart and list the
ele
ments. As an example, the English
sentence The boy‘s wildness shocked the
teachers contains the following
elements.
The
boy
?s
wild
ness
shock
ed
the
teach
er
-s
Functional
lexical inflectional
lexical
derivational lexical
inflectional
functional
lexical
derivational, inflectional
As a useful way to remember the
different categories of morphemes, the following
chart can be used:
lexical
free
functional
Morphemes
derivational
Bound
Inflectional
Students often ask for definitions of
derivational morphemes as opposed to inflectional
morphemes.
There is no easy
answer
. Perhaps the simplest answer is
that derivational morphemes are affixes that
are not inflectional. Inflectional
morphemes signal grammatical relations and are
required by the rule of
sentence
formation. Derivational morphemes, when affixed to
roots and stems, change the
grammatical
words classes and the basic meaning of the word,
which may then be inflected as to
number
, tense, and so on.
3.2 English word formation
Word formation refers to
the formation of longer
, more complex
words from shorter
, simpler words. It
is worth mentioning that there are some
main common processes of word formation in
English, like
affixation, coinage,
borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping,
backformation, conversion, acronyms.
Affixation: Affixation
includes prefixation and suffixation. Affixation
is the morphological process
whereby
grammatical or lexical information is added to the
base.
Affixation has played an active part in
the course of the development of the English
language. It is not
only an age-old,
but a productive method in English word-building
as well, which will be further
discussed in the next
chapter
.
Word coinage: one of the least common
processes of word-formation in English is coinage,
that is the
invention of totally new
terms. We have seen that new words may be added to
the vocabulary of a
language by
derivational processes. New words also enter a
language in a variety of other ways. Some
are created outright to fit some
purpose. The advertising industry has added many
words to English,
such as kodak, nylon.
Specific brand names such as Xeron.
Greek roots borrowed into English have
also provided a means for coining new words.
Thermos ― hot‖
plus metron ― measure‖
gives us thermometer
. From akros ―
topmost‖ and phobia ―fear‖, we get
acrophobia, ― dread of heights‖. To
avoid going out Friday the thirteenth,
you may say that you have
triskaidekapobia, a profound fear of
the number 13. An ingenious cartoonist, Robert
Osborn, has
invented some phobias, to
each of which he gives an appropriate name:
Logizomechanophobia
fear of
reckoning machines
Pornphobia
fear of prostitutes
Borrowing: one of the most common
sources of new words in English is the process
simply labeled
borrowing, that is, the
taking over of words from other languages.
Throughout its history, the English
language has adopted a vast number of
loan-words from other languages.
Compounding: In some examples we have
just considered, there is a joining of two
separate words to
produce a single
form. This combing process, technically, known as
compounding, is very common in
languages like German and English.
Obvious English examples would be bookcase,
fingerprint, sunburn,
wallpaper
, textbook,
wastebasket, etc.
Blending: The
combining of two separate forms to produce a
single new term is also present in the
process called blending.
However
, blending is typically
accomplished by taking only the beginning of one
word and joining it to the end of the
other word. If you wish to refer to the combined
effects of smoke
and fog, there is the
term smog. Some other commonly used examples of
blending are brunch
( breakfast/lunch
), motel ( motor/hotel ) and telecast (
television/broadcast ), etc.
Clipping:
the element of reduction which is noticeable in
blending is even ore apparent in the process
described as clipping. This occurs when
a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a
shorter form,
often in casual speech.
The term gasoline is still in use, but occurs much
less frequently than gas, the
clipped
form. Common examples are ad ( advertisement), fan
( fanatic), prof ( professor), gym
(
gymnasium), math( mathematics), phone
(telephone),lab, flu, etc.
Back-
formation: a very specialized type of reduction
process is known as backformation. Typically, a
word of one type ( usually a noun ) is
reduced to form another word of a different type
(Usually a verb).
It is assumed that a
new word may enter the language because of an
incorrect morphological analysis,
such
a word is called back formation. The verb hawk,
stoke, swindle, and edit all came into the
language
as back formations of
hawker
, stoker
, swindler and
editor
. Pea is derived from pease, by
speakers who
thought pease was a
plural. This is called ― ignorance sometimes can
be creative‖.
Conversion: a
change in the function of a word. For instance,
when a noun comes to be used as a verb
without any reduction is generally
known as conversion, functional shift. A number of
nouns, such as
paper
,
butter
, bottle, vacation, etc, via the
process of conversion, come to be used as verbs in
the
following sentences:
He is papering the bedroom wall.
Have you buttered the
toast?
They are vacationing
in France.
This process is particularly
productive in modern English with new used
occurring frequently. The
conversion
can involve verbs becoming nouns, with guess,
must, spy as the sources of a guess, a must,
a spy. Or adjectives, such as dirty,
empty, total, crazy, and nasty, can become the
verbs to dirty, empty,
total, or the
nouns a crazy, a nasty. Other forms, such as up
and down can also become verbs, as in the
sentences: They up the prices or we
down a few beers. More details can be found in
Chapter 4
Acronyms
首字母缩略词
:
Some new words are formed from the initial letters
of a set of other words.
These acronyms
often consist of capital letters, as in NATO,
UNESCO, but can lose their capitals to
become everyday terms such as laser (
light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation), rada
( radio detecting and
ranging) and scuba ( self contained underwater
breathing apparatus).
Chapter 4 Basic word formation
4.1 Introduction
Word formation
or word-building is an important means of
vocabulary enlargement. The expansion of
the vocabulary is a common and natural
phenomenon of any language, including the English
language.
The
English language has increased its resources not
only through the adoption of words from other
languages, but also through the
formation of new words with the material available
in the language.
There are some main
processes of English word formation: prefixation,
suffixation, compounding,
conversion.
4.1.1 Prefixation
What is
prefixation? Prefixation is a main type of word
formation putting a prefix in front of the stem,
free morphemes, sometimes with but more
usually without a change of word class.
There are ten
categories of prefixes in English according to the
meaning.
1)
negative
prefixes:
a/an. The prefix a/an means
lacking in or lack of. It combines with
adjectives, or some nouns chiefly
used
in learned and scientific words.
Amoral
—
not
concerned with morals
Asexual
—
without
sex or sexual organs
Asymmetry
—
lack of
symmetry
Dis
—
the prefix
dis- means not, or the converse of. It combines
with adjectives, nouns and verbs.
Dishonest
—
not
loyal, disjoint
—
lacking
common members, disloyal
—
not
loyal.
Discontent
—
lack
of contentment,
disorder
—
lack of
order
,
disaggregate
—
break up or
apart
The prefix in-means
not, or the converse of. It changes spelling
depending on the letter that follows it.
Thus, in may also be spelled il before
l, im before m, p, and ir before r
.
Incomplete
—
not
complete, inconsistent
—
not
in a harmony with,
incorrect
—
not correct.
Insane
—
not
healthy in mind, mad.
Illiterate
—
unable
to read and write,
illogical
—
without logic.
Impolite
—
not
polite, immortal
—
that will
not die, continue forever
.
I
rrational
—
without power to
reason, unreasonable.
Irrelevant
—
not
having any real connections with or relation to
something else.
Non--, the
prefix non- means not. It combines with nouns,
adjectives, and adverbs
Non-
black
—
white students.
Nonscience
—
one
that is not a science
Nonsmoker
—
a
person who does not smoke
Nonfree
—
without
freedom
Nonstop-not stop
Nongreen
—
not
green
Nonresistant
—
not
resistant
Nonhero
—
antihero,
a hero whose unconventional characteristics are
opposite to those of a traditional
hero.
The prefix non is a
very productive prefix used in modern English. It
is found that there are about six
hundred words
with the
prefix non in Webster‘s New Collegiate Dictionary,
1977.
Un-, the
prefix un-means not, or the converse of . it
combines with adjectives, participles ( ed and
ing)
and nouns.
Unfriendly
—
not
friendly, hostile
Unwise
—
lacking
wisdom or good sense, foolish
Unexpected
—
not
expected.
Unrest
—
lack of
calmness
Unease
—
uneasiness
The prefix un is also productive, we
may also find over one thousand words with the
prefix un in the
dictionary.
2)
Reversative
or privative prefixes:
De-, the prefix
de- has two meanings. First, the prefix de, means
reversing the action. It combines fairly
freely with verbs and nouns.
Decentralize
—
to
bring about the decentralization of, to move from
one big place to another place.
De-
escalate
–
to decrease in
area, rate, force.
Defrost
—
to become
unfrozen, to remove ice form
Desegregate
—
to
end segregation, racial segregation
De-
train
—
to get off the train
Second, de-, means depriving of . it
combines fairly freely with verbs and nouns.
Defraud
—
to
deceive so as to get or keep something wrongly.
Deforestation
—
the
act of clearing off forests
Denude
—
to remove
the covering form
The
prefix dis-, has two meanings. First, it means
reversing the action. It combines with verbs
freely.
Disconnect
—
undo
the connection
Disinfect
—
to
clean so as to destroy bacteria
Disown
—
refuse to
own sth.
Second, it means lacking. It
can combine with adjectives.
Discolored
—
becoming changed in
color
.
The
prefix un again has two meanings when combining
with verbs
First, it means reversing
the action.
Unpack
—
to remove
Untie
—
to loose
sth tied
Unwrap
—
to remove
the wrapping from
Unzip
—
to open by
undoing a zip
Second, it means depriving of,
releasing from. It combines limitedly with nouns,
turning them into
verbs.
Unhorse
—
dislodge
from a horse
Unleash
—
to remove
sth from a leash
Unman
—
to deprive
of manly vigor
, fortitude or spirit
Unseat
—to dislodge from
one‘s seat.
3)
pejorative prefixes
mal-, the prefix, means badly, bad. It
combines with verbs, participles, adj, and nouns.
Maltreat
—
to treat
sb badly
Malformed
—
made or
shaped badly.
Malfunction
—
a
fault in operation
Malnutrition
—
bad
feeding with food that is the wrong sort or too
small in amount.
mis, the prefix, means wrongly or
astray. It combines with verbs, pp,and nouns.
Miscalculate
—
to
calculate wrongly
Misdial
—
to dial a
wrong number
Misunderstand
—
to
understand wrongly.
Misbeha
ved
—
behaving badly
Misleading
—
leading in a wrong direction.
Pseudo-, the prefix means
false or imitaiton. It combines with nouns and
adj.
Pseudonym
—
an
invented name used by a writer in place of the
real name.
Pseudoscience
—
pretended science
4)
prefixed of
degree or size.
Arch-, the
prefix mans supreme, most. It combines with nouns.
Archbishop
—
a
person in charge of churches
Archdove
—
a
principal figure of the dove group.
Archenemy
—
chief
enemy
Co-, the prefix, means joint, jointly.
It combines freely with nouns and verbs
Coeducation
—
the
system of educating boys and girls together in the
same building.
Coexistence
—
the
state of existing together
.
Coexist
—
to exist
together
.
The prefix co-,
sometimes changes its spelling depending on the
letters that follow it. Thus co-, may
appear as com- before b or p, col
before l, con- before c,f,g, cor before
r
.
Colleague
—
a
fellow worker
Compatriot
—
a
person who was born in or who is a citizen of the
same country as another
.
Concourse
—
an act
of coming, gathering, moving.
Correspondence
—
agreement between particular things.
Combat
—
to fight
against or to fight with
Concur
—
to agree,
to happen at the same time
Hyper-, the prefix, means extreme. It
combines freely with adj, nouns, verbs, etc.
Hyperactive
—
excessivel
y active
Hypercritical
—
too
ready to see faults or things which are wrong
rather than noticing the good points.
H
ypersensitive
—
unusually
sensitive too easily hurt in the feelings
< br>Hypercautious
—
excessively
cautious
Hypermilitant
—
excessively militant.
Hyperbole
—
the use
of language which makes sth sound
bigger
, smaller
Mini-, the prefix, means little. It
combines freely with nouns.
Minibike
—
a small
motorcycle.
Minibus
—
a small
vehicle
Miniradio
—
a small
radio set.
Miniskirt
—
a very
short dress.
Minicar
—
a small
car
Maxi,opposite to mini,
means large or long.
Maxicoat
—
a long
coat
Maxiskirt
—
a
long skirt
Maxiseries
—
a long
TV opera
Out-, the prefix,
means surpassing. It combines freely with nouns
and intransitive verbs to form
transitive verbs.
Outrun
—
to run
faster than
Outlive
—
to live
longer than
Outclass
—
to be
much better than
Over-, the
prefix, means excessive, from above and
better
. It combines with verbs and adj.
Overeat
—
to eat
too much
Overestimate
—
estimate too highly
Overwork
—
work too
hard
Overconfident
—
excessively confident
Overflow
—
to flow
over the edge of
Overshadow
—
throw
a shadow over
Overeducate
—
provide with more education
Over-
exploitation
—
the exploiting
of a natural resource beyond the level
Overprotective
—
ex
tremely protective
Sub-,
the prefix, means below. It combines with adj,
nouns.
Subconscious
—
not
fully known by the mind in conscious workings
Subnormal
—
below
normal
Subcenter
—
a
secondary center
Subcountry
—
countryside
Subtext
—
the
underlying meaning of a literary or dramatic text.
Subcontinent
—
a
large mass of land made up of a number of
different countries.
Subculture
< br>—
inferior to main culture.
Subdivide
—
divide
sth into smaller parts.
Subhuman
—
behaving
in a completely unacceptable way.
Super-,the prefix, has two meanings.
First, it means more than, very special. It
combines freely with
adjs and nouns.
Supernatural
—
not
explained by natural laws.
Supersecret<
/p>
—
extremely secret
Supersized
—
of
extremely large size
Superman
—
a man of
great ability
Superport
—
a very
large port
Supermarket
—
a
large shop where one serves oneself
Superstar
—
an
unusually famous and popular performance.
Superhero
—
an
ideal superior hero
Superplane
—
the
most powerful plane for military use
Supersell
—
an
exceptional good sell
Second, it means
on top, superior
.
Superfreeze
—
to
freeze to a very low temperature
Superpose
—
to
place or lay over or above whether in or not in
contact
Superpower
—
excessive or superior power
Sur-, the prefix, means over and above.
It combines with nouns and some verbs.
Surtax
—
an
additional tax on high incomes
Surpass
—
go beyond
in amount or degree
Surreal
—
fanciful
Surmount
—
conquer<
/p>
.
Ultra-, the
prefix, means extreme, beyond. It combines with
adjs and nouns in technical usage,
sometimes with the prefix stressed.
Ultraconservative
—
ex
tremely conservatives
Ultramarine
—
situated beyond the sea
Ultramodern
—
having the
very latest ideas, styles.
Ultra-
violet
—
beyond the purple end
of the range of colors that make up light seen by
human being.
Ultra-
secret
—
highly secret.
Ultra-short
—
very
short in duration
Ultra-
microscope
—
an apparatus for
making visible scattered light particles too small
be perceived by
the ordinary.
Ultrahigh
—
of the
highest degree, extremely high
Ultralef
t
—
extremely radical
Under-, the prefix, means
too little. It combines with verbs, nouns, and ed-
participles
Undercharge
—
to
take or ask too less
Underestimate
—
have too low an opinion of the
degree or number of
Underdeveloped
—
to
become less developed
Undereducated
—
not
normally or adequately educated
Under-
occupied
—
have fewer
occupants than there is room for
,
Underproduce
—
to
produce less than the usual amount.
Undertax
—
to tax
insufficiently or inadequately.
Underkill
—
an
inability to defeat an enemy.
5)
prefixes of orientation
and attitude
anti-, the prefix, means
against. It combines with adjs and nouns mainly. <
/p>
Antibacterial
—
dire
cted or effective against bacteria
Anticlockwise
—
in
the opposite direction to the hands of a clock
Antisocial
—
opposed
to laws or to organized societies.
Contra-, the prefix, means opposite. It
combines with nouns, verbs and adjs.
Contradiction
—
the
act of contradicting.
Contrafact
—
opposite to the fact
Counter-, the prefix, means against, in
opposition to. It combines with verbs, nouns and
adjs.
Counteract
—
to
lesson, reduce or oppose the effect
Counterattack
—
to
make a counterattack
Counterclaim
—
an
opposing claim, especially in law.
Coun
tercurrent
—
flowing in an
opposite direction
Pro, the
prefix, has two meanings. Firstly, it means
for
, on the side of.
Pro-
European
—
supporting or
advocating the social cultural or economic
unification of western European
countries
Pro-common
market
—
supporting European
economic community
Pro-
student
—
favoring or siding
with students
Secondly, it means on
behalf of. It combines with nouns freely.
Pro-consul
—
deputy
consul.
6)
locative prefix
Locative
prefixes, like spatial prepositions, may extend
their meaning metaphorically to abstract
spheres.
Fore-, the prefix,
means front part of, front. It combines freely
with nouns.
Forearm
—
the lower
part of the arm
Forehead
—
the part
of the face above the eyes and below the hair
Foreground
—
the
nearest part of a scene in a view, a picture and a
photo
Foreleg
—
either of
the 2 front legs of a 4-legged animal
Foreword
—
a short
introduction at the beginning of a book.
Inter
, the
prefix, means between, among. It combines with
adjs, verbs and nouns.
Intercontinental
—
extending among continents
or carried on between continents.
International
—
having
to do with more than one country
Intertwine
—
to
twine about one another
Interview
—
to ask
questions of
Interplay
—
working
together
Interaction
—
have
an effect on each other
Trans, the prefix, means across, from
one place to another
. It combines
freely with verbs and adjs.
Transcontin
ental
—
go across a continent
Transpacific
—
cros
sing or extending across the pacific ocean
Transform
转换—
to
change completely in form
Transplant
—
to
move from one place and plant in another
Transnational
—
across the
nations.
7)
prefixes of time and order
ex-, the prefix, means
former
. It combines with human nouns
ex-husband
—
former
husband
ex-
president
—
former president
ex-wife
—
former
president
fore, the prefix
here, means before.
Foresee
—
to form
an idea or judgment about what will happen in the
future
Foretell
—
to tell
what will happen in future
Forewarn
—
to warn
in advance
Foresight
—
the
ability to see future needs.
Post-, the prefix, means
after
.
Post-
election
—
relating to a
period after election
Post
liberation
—
after liberation
Post war
—
after
war
Post-doctoral ( post
doctorate)
—
being beyond the
doctoral level.
Pre, the
prefix, means before.
Pre-
school
—
the pe
riod
in child‘ s life from the infancy to the age of
six that ordinarily precedes
attendance
at elementary school
Pre-
knowledge
—
knowing in advance
Prehistory
—
a time
before history was written
Premature
—
not
mature
Preconference
—
prior to the conference
Pre
cook
—
cook partially before
final cooking
Pre
task
—
the first part of the
whole tasks
Re, prefix,
means again, back.
Redesign
—
to
design again
Redial
—
make a
call again
8)
Number prefixes
This part
belongs to the neo-classical items. They are
originally Greek or Latin widely used numerical
prefixes.
Bi, di, the prefix
means two.
Bicycle
—
a 2
wheeled vehicle
Bilingual
—
containing or expressing in two languages
Biweekly
—
appearin
g every two weeks
Bilateral
—
of,
with two sides
Dioxide
—
a
chemical compound containing 2 atoms of oxygen to
every one another substance
Dichotomy
—
a
division or the process of dividing into two
especially mutually exclusive groups
Multi, poly- the prefix, means many.
Multi-
lateral
—
having many sides
Multinational
—
invol
ving more than two countries
Multi-
forms
—
having several
different shapes
Multimedia
—
having
many media worked together
, one of
computer systems
Polygamy
—
the
custom or practice of having more than one wife at
the same time
Polysemy
—
the
existence of many meanings
Polygon
—
a figure
or a flat surface having 5 or more straight sides
Semi-, hemi- the prefix,
means half
Semicircle
—
half a
circle
Semi-
illiterate
—
a person who is
barely able to read or write
Semivowel
—
a sound
like a vowel sound, like j in English
Hemisphere
—
half a
sphere
Hemicycle
—
half a
circle
Hemidemisemiquaver
—
sixty fourth note.
Hemiplegia<
/p>
—
paralysis of one lateral
half of the body
Tri-, the
prefix, means three.
Triangle
—
a flat
figure with 3 straight sides and 3 angles
Tricycle
—
a
bicycle with 3 wheels
Trilateral
—
having
three sides
Trilingual
—
consisting of three languages
Uni-, mon-, the prefixes, mean one.
Unification
—
the
act, process or result of unifying
Uniform
—
a dress
of a distinctive design or fashion
Unisex
—
the state
or condition of not being distinguishable as to
sex
Unique
—
being
the only one
Monogamy
—
the
custom or practice having one wife or husband at
one time
Monologue
—
a
spoken part of a play, film, for a single
performer
, especially acting alone
Monorail
—
a
railway with a single rail
9)
Miscellaneous neo-
classical prefixes
Auto,
the prefix, means self. It combines with nouns and
adjs
Autobiography
—
a
book written by oneself about one
Autocrat
—
a ruler
with unlimited power
Automation
—
the
act that needs little or non-human control
Extra-, the prefix, means
exceptionally. It combines freely with adjs,
occasionally with nouns,
sometimes
written as a separate word
Extralinguis
tic
—
outside the province of
language or linguistics
Extralunar
—
found
existing outside the moon
Extraordinate
—
remarkable
Extra
vagant
—
spending too much
money
Neo-, the prefix,
means new, revived. It combines with nouns and
adjs
Neo-
classism
—
new classism
Neo-
impressionism
—
a late 19th
century French art theory and practice
charaterized by an attempt to
make
impressionism more precise in form
Neo-
colonialism
—
the economic and
political policies by which a Great power
indirectly maintains or
extends its
influence over other areas or people.
Neo-Nazi
—
of or
pertaining to a political party which follows the
Nazi principles.
Pan, the
prefix, means all, world wide. It combines
especially with nouns and premodifying denominal
adjs
Pan-
Americanism
—
a movement for
greater cooperation among the pan-American nations
especially in
defence, commerce and
cultural relations.
Pan-
Asianism
—
a movement or
policy seeking the political union of all Asian
countries
Proto-, the
prefix, means first, original. It combines with
nouns and adjs.
Protohuman
—<
/p>
relating to or resembling an early
primitive human or manlike primate.
Protomartyr
—
the
first martyr in a cause or region
Protolanguage
—
an
assumed or recorded ancestral language
Tele, the prefix, means distant. It
combines chiefly with classical bases to form
nouns.
Telegram
—
a
message sent by telegraph
Telescope
—
a
tubelike scientific instrument used for seeing
distant objects by making them appear
nearer and nearer
.
Telecommunication
—
communic
ation at a distance.
Vice-,
the prefix, means deputy. It combines freely with
nouns
Vice-
chairman
—
an officer next in
rank to a chairman
Vic-
president
—
an officer next in
rank to a president
10)
Conversion prefixes.
The
function of conversion prefixes is to produce a
conversion of the base from one word class to
another
.
a-, the
prefix, chiefly combines with verbs to form
predicative adjs.
Asleep
—
sleeping
Astride
—
with a
leg on each side
Atremble
—
shaking
involuntarily
Be-, the
prefix, has three cases used in English. First, it
combines with
–
ed to turn
noun bases into adjs
with intensified
force. It means wearing or surrounded by.
< br>Befogged
—
surrounded by
fog
Bespectacled
—
wearing spectacles
Bewigged
—
wearing
a wig
Second, it intensifies the force
of verbs
Bedazzle
—
to
confuse by a strong light, to impress forcefully
Bestir
—
to stir up
Third, it combines with nouns to be
transitive verbs
Bedevil
—
to
trouble greatly
Befriend
—
to act
as a friend to sb
Bewitch
—
to have a
magic effect, often harmful, charm as if by magic
En-, em- ( before p or b).
the prefix en- or em chiefly combines with nouns
to form verbs. The prefix en-
means to
put into, or to provide with.
Empower
—
to give
someone the power or lawful right
Endanger
危害—
to
cause danger to
Enlarge
—
make sth
larger
4.1.2 suffixation
What is suffixation? Suffixation is a
main type of word formation, putting a suffix
after the stem,
sometimes without, but
more usually with a change of word class. It is
known that the primary function
of
prefixes is to effect a semantic modification of
the base while the chief function of suffixes is
to change
the word class of the base,
although suffixes have only a small semantic role.
Therefore the suffixes may
be
classified into four categories according to the
word class.
1)
Noun
suffixes: it may be subdivided into the following
five types
(1) denominal
nouns
名词派生
: abstract. The
following nouns suffixes combine with noun bases
which
become largely noncount, abstract
or collective nouns of status and activities.
-age, the suffix, means measure of or
collection of
Baggage
—
all the
bags and other containers with which a person
travels
Luggage
—
the
cases, bags, boxes, etc, of a traveler
.
Percentage
—
an
amount stated as if it is part of a whole which is
100
-dom, the suffix, means the state
of being.
Kingdom
—
a country
governed by a king
Wisdom
—
the state
of being wise
Officialdom
—
officials as a class
-ery, -ry, the suffix, means condition
associated with, location of, etc.
Drudgery
—
hard,
dull, humble work
Slavery
—
the
system of having slaves
Nursery
—
a place
where small children are taken care of
Refinery
—
a
building for refining metals, oil or
sugar
.
Machinery
—
machines in general
-ful, the suffix, means the amount
contained.
Handful
—
an amount
which is as much as can be held in the hand
Mouthful
—
as much
as a mouth will hold
-hood,
the suffix, means the state or time of being sth
Boyhood
—
the state
period of being a boy
Brotherhood
—
the
quality or state of being brothers
Manhood
—
the
condition or period of time of being a man
-ing, the suffix, means
material of, activity
Matting
—
rough
material for mats
Carpeting
—
heavy
woven usually woolen material for making carpets
Farming
—
the
practice or working on a farm
Teaching
—
the
practice of being a teacher
-ism, the suffix, means practice of,
doctrine of
Idealism
—the system of
living according to one‘s ideals
Optimism
—
the
belief that good will win over evil
Pessimism
—
the
belief that everything will be worse
-ship, the suffix, means the state or
quality of
Membership
—
the
state of being a member of ..
Scholarship
—
a sum
of money or other prize given to a student by an
official body
4.1.3
Compounding
Compound word, also
compound
复合词
, is a word made
up of two or more other words. Compounds in
English fall into two types: (1)
vernacular compounds like teapot and blackbird,
formed on principles
typical of the
Germanic languages. (2) Classical compounds like
agriculture and biography, based on the
compounding patterns of Greek and
Latin.
Compounding is a process by
which a compound lexeme is derived from two or
more simpler lexemes.
For instance,
blackbird is a compound noun whose form,
blackbird, combines those of Black and Bird.
Compounding is a lexical process: it
derives lexemes from lexemes.
For
English, compounding is perhaps the most powerful
word building process. The most common
compounds are two nouns combined to
create a meaning which differs from that of each
of it parts, as
in fire engine or
toothbrush. However
, compounds can be
quite lengthy. Ads proclaim a ―
no
-cost-to-you
gift‖ or an ―
absolute money back guarantee. Compounds can be
divided into three categories accord
ing
to word classes: noun compounds,
adjective compounds, and verb compounds.
4.1.3.1 Noun compounds.
Classifying nouns compounds:
subject-verb, verb-verb,
appositional, associative, instrumental,
locative, resemblance,
composition/form/contents, adjective-noun, names,
other
.
1)
subject-verb. In these compounds a
nominal element is interpreted as the agent of the
action
denoted by the other
,
verbal element. In most examples, therefore, the
nominal element is an animate,
but in a
few, like hovercraft, jump jet, popgun, revolving
door
, though the noun is not animate,
it still
seems most naturally analyzed
as the subject of the verb.
a.
subject + deverbal noun.
This is a very productive kind. Sunrise ( the sun
rises)
catcall, daybreak, earthquake,
headache, rainfall, heartbeat.
b.
verb+ subject. This kind is only weakly
productive. Crybaby ( the baby likes to cry)
tugboat, playboy, watchdog, driftice
c.
verbal noun in
ing+subject
This kind is very
productive. Dancing-girl ( the girl dances).
Wading bird, washing machine, cleaning
woman, flying squad
2)
type
verb and object. There are five kinds in this type
a.
object + deverbal noun.
This is a moderately productive kind. Compounds of
this kind have different
expression in
meaning. Some compounds denote an activity, some
denote the result of an activity and
other can be either
.
Blood test ( someone tests blood).
Birth control, dress design, haircut,
office management, self control, suicide attempt
b.
object+ deverbal noun in
ing. This kind is a very productive kind.
Air-conditioning, book-binding,
brainwashing, dressmaking, housekeeping, story
telling.
c.
object+ agential
nouns in er or or
. This is a very
productive kind.
Gamekeeper
,
cigar-smoker
, matchmaker
,
stockholder
, computer-designer
d.
verb+object. Draw bridge
( someone draws the bridge).
Push
button, call girl, knitwear
, treadmill
e.
verbal noun in
ing+object. This is very productive.
Reading material, drinking
water
, spending money, chewing gum,
eating apple
3)
verb and
adverbial. There are five kinds in this type.
a.
verbal noun in
ing+adverbial
diving board, drinking cup, freezing
point, living room, waiting room( relation of
place)
adding machine,
sewing machine, walking stick, washing machine
(relation of instrument)
b.
adverbial+verbal noun in ing
churchgoing, horse riding,
sun bathing ( relation of place)
fly-fishing, handwriting ( relation of
instrument)
c.
adverbial+agential noun in er
factory worker
, city
dweller
, backswimmer
,
theatergoer ( place)
daydreamer ( time)
d.
adverbial+deverbal noun.
A moderately productive kind.
Boat
ride, table talk, moon walk, field work ( place)
Daydream, night flight ( time)
Gunfight ( instrument)
e.
verb+ adverbial
workbench,
springboard , washroom, restroom ( place)
grindstone, swimsuit, cookbook, fry-
pan, plaything (instrument)
4)
subject and object. This type is also
called verbless compounds
There are
five kinds in this type
a.
noun1 +noun2 ( noun 1 powers or
operates noun 2)
air brake, cable
car
, motorcycle, steam engine, hydrogen
bomb
b.
noun 1 + noun 2 (
noun 2 produces noun 1)
honey bee, oil
well, power plant, tear gas
c.
noun 1 + noun 2 ( noun 1 produces noun
1)
cane-sugar
, sawdust,
foodpoisoning, whalebone
d.
noun 1 + noun 2 ( noun1 has noun 2 )
pianokeys, arrowhead, television
screen, cartwheel
e.
noun 1
+ noun 2 ( noun 2 control or works in connection
with noun 1)
chairperson, fireman,
postman, housewife
5)
subject + complement. This type has
five kinds
a.
noun 1 + noun
2 ( noun 2 is noun 1)
manservant, pine
tree, oak tree, drummer boy
b.
adj + noun ( noun is adj )
blackboard, blueprint, grey
matter
, dark room, superhero
c.
noun 1+noun 2 ( noun 2 is
like noun 1)
butterfly, dragonfly,
goldfish, frogman
d.
noun 1+
noun 2 ( noun 2 is of or consists of noun 1)
snow flake, chocolate bar
,
dustheap
e.
noun 1+ noun 2 (
noun 2 is for noun 1)
tearoom,
birdcage, breakfast time, flowerbed
4.1.3.2 adjective compounds. The
classes of adjective compounds set out below are
as follows:
1) adjunct+
verb
2) subject+ verb
3) verb +object
4) appositional
5) instrumental
6) locative
7) comparative
8) derivational
9) nominal attributive
1)
adjunct + verb
a. adverb + adjective:
evergreen
wide awake
b.
adverb + verb ( ing): far-seeing, easy going,
everlasting, far-reaching, long-suffering
c. adverb+ verb: well-read,
well-frozen, ill-judged, well-behaved
2)
subject + verb/
complement
a.
noun + verb
(ed).
Poverty-stricken,
man-made, sun baked, self-taught
b.
noun +adjective
headstrong, heart-sick, top-heavy
3)
verb +object.
a.
noun +verb (ing ) :
breathtaking, painstaking, time-consuming
b.
noun + verbal adjective:
germ-resistant, self-destructive
c.
noun + verb (ed): heart-broken, tongue-
tied
4)
appositonal. Adjective compounds in
which there is a coordinative relation between the
elements
are, like the comparable
nominal compound type. It is easier to find some
examples in literature.
Shakespeare has
such words : fortunate-unhappy, foolish-witty,
devilish-holy. In which there is a
contrast between the meanings of the
two elements.
5)
Instrumental
a.
noun+ adjective: seasick, camera-shy,
snow-blind, travel-weary
b.
noun +verb(ed): time-honored, jet-
propelled, spoon-fed
6)
locative
a.
locative noun + adjective: night-blind,
world famous
b.
locative
noun + verb (ed): country bred, heart-felt, heaven
born, world-renowned
7)
comparative. In these compounds the
second element is specified by a comparison with
some
quality characteristics of what
the first element denotes. The first element in
all cases is nominal.
a.
intensifying:
a
1 ) noun+adjective: crystal-clear
,
razor sharp, ice-cold, snow-white
a 2) verb ing +adjective: freezing
cold, shocking pind
b. particularizing:
b1) noun+color adjective: bottle green, grass
green, sky blue
b 2) noun + adjective
of extent or measurement: shoulder high, skin-
deep, life-long
8) prepostional
a. noun
+adjective: praiseworthy, homesick, color-blind,
self-sufficient
b. noun + verb (ed): diamond-cut,
capacity
–
filled, safety-
tested
9) derivational. These consist
of a compound noun stem-either noun-noun or
adjective-noun- and the
adjective
suffix ED
Quick tempered, good-natured,
pig-headed, warm-hearted, short-sighted, feather-
brained
10) nominal attributive
a. verb +object noun: catch-penny,
break-neck, telltale
b. other nominal
attributives: free-lance, full-scale, white-collar
4.1.3.3 Verb compounds
Verb compounds are compounds mainly
formed by back-formation. For example, the verb
compound
baby-sit is derived from the
word babysitter by subtracting the suffix
er
.
Compounds of this
category may be divided into tow types:
1)
object + verb : sight
see, brainwash, housekeep, lip-read, caretake,
proof read, tape record.
2)
adverbial and verb : daydream, sleep
walk, window shop
Verb compounds may
also be formed by zero derivation
All
the examples which follow, where patterns or noun
to verb zero derivation are described, contain
compound verbs from homonymous compound
nouns.
Shipwreck, honeymoon, honeycomb,
machine gun, handcuff.
4.1.4
conversion
Conversion, functional shift, or zero
derivation. The use of a word that is normally one
part of speech or
word class as another
part of speech, without any change in form. It is
often said that there is no noun
in
English that can not be verbed: bag a prize,
position a picture with care.
Conversion is a process which allows us
to create additional lexical items out of those
that already exist.
It is also a
process in language change. We like a word so that
we decide to use it in a new way. So a saw
is use to saw. A bag is used to bag,
a file is used to file, a
snoop snoops, and a spy spies.
This
process is not limited to one syllable words.
Shovels are used to shovel snow. Bottles are used
in
Bottling and butter for buttering,
An umpire umpires a game. A star stars in a film
shown at a theater
where an usher
ushers. Nor is the process limited to the creation
of verbs from nouns. For example, one
hears complains that the students
bookstore upped its prices again.
1. Conversion to verb. There are two
types of conversion to verb.
A.
Denominal, which has seven kinds
a. to
put in noun: bottle ( to put into a bottle),
corner ( to put into a difficult position), floor
( to put a
floor in a building)
b. give N or provide with N: coat (
give a coat to ), mask ( give a mask to )
c. to deprive of N: core ( remove the
core from ), skin ( to take skin off )
d. to do with N: knife ( cut with a
knife ), brake ( stop by means of a brake),
finger(touch with fingers
e. to be N
with respect to: father ( act as a father to),
nurse ( act as a nurse to )
f. make or
change…into N: cash ( chan
ge into
cash), group( make into a group)
send
or go by N: mail ( send by mail ), bicycle( go by
bicycle), boat ( travel in a boat)
B.
de-adjectival. This type has two kinds
a. transitive verbs, to make adj: calm
( make calm ), dirty ( make or become dirty)
b. intransitive verb, to become adj:
dry ( become dry), empty ( become empty), narrow(
become
narrow), grey ( become grey ),
blue( become blue). But this kind can also be used
as transitive verbs.
2.
Conversion to noun. There are two types of
conversion to noun.
al. which includes
the following kinds.
a. to denote the
state of mind or sensation
desire
—
strong
longing, wich
dismay
—
strong
feeling of fear and hopelessness
doubt
—
uncertainty
of mind
love
—
kind
feeling, fondness
smell
—
one of the
five senses special to the nose
want
—
need
b. to denote an event or activity
attempt
—
effort to
do something
fall
—
act of
falling
hit
—
blow
laugh
—
sound made
in laughing
search
—
act of
searching
swim
—
act or
period of swimming
object of the given
verb
answer
—
questions
and answers
bet
—
lay you a bet
catch
—
a good
catch
find
—
an
important find
d. as subject of the
given verb
cheat
—
a cheat is
a person who cheats
coach
—
a coach is
a person who trains athletes
instrument of the given verb
cover
—put the cover
on…
wrap
—
shawls,
coats, cloak, etc.
f.
as
manner of the given verb
walk
—
by his walk
throw
—
with a
throw of 500 feet
g.
as
place of the given verb
divide
—
a period
marking the divide
rise
—
a small rise
( a small slope)
turn
—
take a turn
to the right
adjectival.
Final
—
they are
running in the final
Daily
—
China Daily
Comic
—
comic actor
Regular
—
regular
customer
Young
married
—
married person
Annual
—
annual
books or magazine
Bimonthly
—
bimonthly magazine
Weekly
—
weekly
magazine
Perennial
—
perennial plant.
3.
Conversion to adjective
Denomial: a
brick garage, a very oxford accent, a New York
accent.
4.
other categories of conversion
But,if-- his speech contains too many
ifs and buts
Must
—
the book is
a must for students of science
Isms
—
this is the
age of isms
The pros and
cons
Dos ad don‘ts
Off
—
she will off
and do her own things
Down
—
they downed
tools in protest
Up-in-the-
air
—
I feel up in the ari
Face to face interview
5. conversion related to certain
changes of pronunciation, spelling and stress
A. voicing of final consonants
Abuse
—
abuse,
advice
—
advise,
belief
—
believe,
grief
—
grieve,
half
—
halve,
mouth
—
mouth
But
the words licence/ license, practice/practise are
pronounced within a final [s]. whereas in American
English the conversion is complete, the
two words have the same spelling.
B.
shift of stress
When verbs of two
syllables are converted into nouns, the stress is
sometimes shifted from the second
to
the first syllable.
Ac‘cent—?accent,
com‘bine—?combine, abs‘tract—?abstract,
con‘fine—?confine, con‘fict—?confict,
c
on‘tes
t
—?contest,
ex‘port—?export, in‘crease—?increase,
per‘fume—?perfume, pro‘test—?protest,
re‘cord—?record, trans‘port—?transport,
etc.
Chapter 5 words and
motivation
Challenge you !
?
bong
?
boo-hoo
?
boom
?
bow-wow
What
does it mean?
Task 1 Brainstorming
?
What do you
want to say about
the
relationship between the structure of
a word and its meaning?
Chapter 5 Words and motivation
?
What is
motivation?
?
Motivation is the relationship between
the structure of a word and its meaning, or the
relationship
between words and
expressions and the things they can be used to
refer to.
?
it is
known that the relation between word and thing is
indirect, being mediated by the concept.
Motivation can occur in the following
ways:
?
5.1 phonetic motivation / onomatopoeia
motivation.
?
A
large number of English words can be explained by
phonetic motivation. The formation or use of
words that were coined in imitation of
the sounds associated with the things named are
called
onomatopoeia,
?
The association
between sounds is caused by the similarity of the
sound and the meaning.
?
At first some
words from animals:
?
Apes
gibber/jabber
猿啼
asses bray
驴嘶
bears growl
熊咆哮
?
Bulls bellow /low
公牛吼叫
pigs grunt
猪哼哼
?
horse heigh/snort/nicker
马鸣
/
萧萧
?
Lions roar/ growl
狮吼
tigers growl/ rar/snarl
虎啸
wolves howl/ growl
狼嗥
?
Dogs
bark/bay/yelp
犬吠
elephants trumpet/ bellow
象鸣叫
?
cows low/moo
母牛哞哞叫
?
Sheep bleat/ blat/ baa
羊咩咩叫
ducks quack/
squawk
鸭子嘎嘎叫
?
Cats meow/mew
猫喵喵叫
cocks crow/ cock-a-doodle-doo
雄鸡喔喔啼
?
Hens cackle/ cluck/ chuckle
母鸡咯咯叫
Chickens
cheep
小鸡叽叽叫
?
Geese gaggle/goggle/ crackle
鹅嘎嘎叫
frogs croak
青蛙呱呱叫
?
Mice
squeak/peep
老鼠吱吱叫
Bees hum/buzz/drone
蜜蜂嗡嗡叫
?
Cicadas chirp
蝉知了知了叫
sparrows
twitter
麻雀叫喳喳
?
Crows caw
乌鸦叫呱呱
cuckoos cuckoo
杜鹃声声啼
?
Doves sob/coo
鸽子咕咕叫
woodpeckers
drum
啄木鸟咚咚
?
Owls whoop/scream
猫头鹰嗬嗬叫
larks
warble
云雀啭鸣
?
Cranes cry/ whoop
白鹭啼鸣
birds
peep/sing/chirp
料
?
Magpies chatter/clatter
喜鹊喳喳
?
swallows chirp/twitter
燕子呢喃
?
Beetles drone
甲虫叽叽
crickets chip/ chirr/chirrup
蟋蟀唧唧
?
Snakes hiss
蛇嘶嘶
?
Secondly some
words come into being by imitating the sounds in
the nature
?
Bang
砰
patter
啪嗒
（雨）
tingling
丁零（铃声）
ping pong
乒乓
tick tock
嘀嗒
?
rumble
雷声隆隆
rustle /murmur/
rattle/whisper
风飒飒
/
沙沙
/
咯咯
/
习习
crack
噼啪
clink
叮当
zip
嗖嗖（子弹）
?
Thirdly, some
words are used for imitation of voice of humankind
?
Haha
哈哈
aha
啊哈
gurgle
咯咯
boo
呸
ouch
哎哟
snore
呼噜声
chortle
哈哈大笑声
titter
嗤嗤的笑声
?
It should be
mentioned that onomatopoeia is often adopted by
writers as a kind of rhetorical device
in order that a vivid and real
situation can be presented before the readers. For
instance:
?
Its creaks blending with the squeaking
and rumbling of the grinding wheels and the
occasional
grunts and sighs of the
camels.
?
From the Middle Eastern Bazaar
?
The
ice was here, the ice was there
?
The ice was all
around:
?
It
cracked and growled and roared and howled,
?
Like noise in a swound ! ( swoon)
?
From Samuel T Coleridge: The rime of
the Ancient Mariner
?
The onomatopoeia helps to create a
scene of echoing sounds at the south pole.
?
You
would see the islands looking dusty through the
rain, and the trees thrashing around in the wind;
then comes a h-whack-bum! Bum! Bumble-
umble-umbum-bum-bum-bum
—
and
the thunder would go
rumbling and
grumbling away, and quit
–
and then rip comes another flash and another
sockdolager
( thunder ).
From Mark
Twain: The adventures of Huckleberry Finn
?
In this part,
he gives us a vivid scene of rain, wind, flash,
thunder
. It is worth mentioning that
the
onomatopoeia helps the plot to
reach the climax. The rumbling and grumbling
impinges on the readers‘
ears
continually, due to which the readers may feel as
if they were on the spot of the thunderstorm.
5.2 Grammatical motivation
?
Words which
were formed by means of grammatical structure
belong to the category of motivation
by
grammar
.
?
A word like door man, it consists of
door and man. This word was formed by grammatical
motivation.
The word teacher is a
similar example. The word can be understood by
anyone who knows English verb
teach and
the suffix
–
er
.
?
Therefore, a large number of words in
the English vocabulary are formed by grammatical
motivation
which has been discussed the
fourth chapter
.
Seek for_________
?
1.
地震
恶魔夺走了多少年轻的生命；悲伤的寒流正席卷着每个角落。
?
2.
我的怒火在燃烧。
?
3.
愿他们在天国的人生旅途平安幸福。
?
4.
猪头，笨蛋、牛市，熊市
?
5. sunshine,
a wave/fit of
anger
, a series of laughter
,
a thrill of
fear
, Smoking heavily
Metaphor We live by
?
Metaphor is a
way of cognition and behavior in terms of words
and language.
?
Without
meta
phor
,….
?
21,000,000
5.3 semantic motivation
Semantic motivation is also called
motivation of meaning. From the primary sense the
word has
developed figurative senses in
the course of development of the language. There
are a variety of words
formed by
figurative senses as follows:
1) metaphor
a
transfer of a meaning, a figure of speech
containing an implied comparison, in which a word
or
phrase ordinarily and primarily used
of one thing is applied to another
.
?
it
is common that metaphor is classified into three
categories
：
?
First, the
reference is stated directly, that is to say, the
subject is the reference.
?
A book that is
shut is but a brick.
?
Life is a short of summer
?
All the world
is a stage.
?
Second, the reference is half covert.
The reference is the words conversed from verbs,
by which the
subject is described to
embroil the features of the reference.
?
They stormed
the speaker with questions
?
He just parrots what other people say.
?
From every
window heads were craning for a view of it.
?
Third, the
reference is utterly covert.
?
Some books are
to be tasted, others to be swallowed and some few
to be chewed and digested.
?
The last striking feature worth
mentioning is the culture factor in
metaphor
.
?
The culture factor plays a great role
in English metaphor
, due to which it is
of great difficulty for
those who are
from different cultures to understand the metaphor
entailed in a large number of idioms
and phrases:
?
Teach a fish to swim
班门弄斧
?
Feather one‘ nest
中饱私囊
?
Beard the lion in his den
虎口拔牙
?
Add insult to injury
雪上加霜
?
Cast pearls before swine
对牛弹琴
?
Hold the candle to the devil
助纣为虐
?
Cry up wine and sell vinegar
挂羊头卖狗肉
?
Fish in the air
水中捞月
?
Set a fox to keep one‘s geese
引狼入室
?
Let sleeping
dogs lie
不要打草惊蛇
?
Let the cat out
of the bag
露马脚
?
Hold a wolf by
the ears
骑虎难下
?
A flash in the
pan
昙花一现
2
）
Metonymy
转喻
?
Metonymy is originated from Greek. The
Cassell Dictionary of Literary and Language Terms
defines
it as : the name of something
is used to represent a more general but closely
related thing. In other
words, metonymy
is just a change of name.
?
It is frequently cited that Metonymy
may be classified as follows:
?
Firstly, a
container for its content
?
The kettle is boiling
?
Sorry, my
pocket can‘t aff
ord such a pair of
shoes.
?
After
her husband left her
, Wendy took to the
bottle.
?
Secondly, a place for the people, a
location for the institution or organization
?
The whole town
attended the funeral
?
The minute Presley took the stage, the
museum hall burst into cheers.
?
Downing
Street
—
the British cabinet,
the British government
?
Fleet Street
—
the
British Press
?
The white
house
—
the US government
?
Kremlin
—
the
government of Russia
?
The Pentagon
—
the
US military department
?
Hollywood
—
the US
film making industry
?
The wall street definitely has more say
in their policy making.
?
Thirdly, an instrument for its
user
.
?
The pen is mightier than the sword.
?
He believed
that the gun was not so much as the plough.
?
And next, a
striking feature for the person or the thing.
?
A bald slipped
out through the back door
?
The crown should not yield to the cross
?
Bob was
promoted form the grey-collar to the white-collar
in the shortest time
?
Fifthly, an organ for its function
?
Johnny Carson
has much to do keep up with my quick and witty
tongue.
?
If
there is any bad blood in the fellow, he will be
sure to show it
?
Sixthly, author for work.
?
To read a
Shakespeare or a Mark Twain is to eat a food full
of protein.
?
Recently he has been steeped in .
3)
synecdoche:
提喻
?
a
part for the whole
?
More hands are needed at harvest time.
?
During my stay
in Rwanda, when I came across the hungry mouths,
big or small, I felt quite
sympathetic
and helpless as well.
?
Walls have ears
?
the whole for the part.
?
China beat
South Korea 3 to 1 at badminton, Kuala,
Lumpur
.
?
The last one worth mentioning here is
special names for some allusions, historical
events, myths
and so on.
?
Romeo
—
a devoted
lover
?
Solomen
—
a wise
man
?
Helen
—
a beautiful
woman
?
Judas
—
a traitor
?
Shylock
—
a miser
?
Uncle
Tom
—
a black who compromises
and conforms with the whites.
?
LeiFeng
—
one who
is ready to help others
4)
Analogy
类比
?
Analogy is also
from Greek. It is also a form of comparison but
unlike simile or metaphor
, which
usually concentrates on one points of
resemblance, analogy draws a parallel between two
unlike things
that have several common
qualities or points of resemblance.
?
It is not
surprising that many analogies have been made
between social insects and human
societies.
?
The striking feature of analogy is that
a new word is made by imitating the original
similar words,
which is further
classified as follows:
?
Firstly, analogy of color
?
Gray
list
—
white list , the Black
panther
—
the green
panther
, blue-
collar
—
the gray-colored
workers.
?
Secondly, analogy of first
lady
—
the first
mother
, the first family, the third
world
—
the
fourth
world.
?
Thirdly,
spatial analogy.
?
landscape
—
moonscape, marscape
?
seafaring
—
space-
faring,
?
earthquake
—
star-
quake.
?
Moonport
—
moonport
?
Fourthly,
analogy of similarity
?
Missile
gap
—
generation gap
?
Environmental
pollution
—
noise/sound
pollution/cultural pollution
?
Fifthly,
analogy of antonym
反义词
?
Moonlight
—
daylight
?
Hotline
—
cold-line
?
With-
it
—
without it
?
Flash
back
–
flash forward
Task 1
Brainstorming
?
A great many words have new meanings
when they are used in metaphor:
?
Fruitful:
?
Blooming :
?
Leg:
?
When they are
followed by … they have metaphoric
meanings.
5.4 Logical
motivation
?
实质定义
通常采用“属加种差定义法”来揭示事物的特有属性，因此，实质定义又叫属加种差定义。
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