-
English
Lexicology(
英语词汇学
)
Lexicology
（词汇学）
:
is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the
origins and meanings of
words.
The Nature and Scope of
English lexicology
：
English lexicology aims at
investigating and studying the morphological
structures of
English words and word
equivalents, their semantic structures, relations,
historical
development, formation and
usages.
The subjects that
English Lexicology correlated with and extent
to
：
English
Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic
disciplines as
morphology(
形态学
),
semantics(
语义学
), e
tymology(
词源学
),stylistics
（文体论）
and
lexicography(
词典学
)
The reason for a student to
study English lexicology
：
According to the textbook, English
Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for
students of
English.
A good
knowledge of morphological structures of English
words and rules of
word-formation will
help learners develop their personal vocabulary
and consciously
increase their word
power. The information of the historical
development and the
principles of
classification will give them a deeper
understanding of word-meaning and
enable them to organize, classify and
store words more effectively. The understanding
and
their sense relations will
gradually raise their awareness of meaning and
usage, and enable
them use words more
accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge
of dictionaries
will improve their
skills of using reference books and raise their
problem-solving ability and
efficiency
of individual study.
Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and
vocabulary
Word
（词的定义）
:
A word is a minimal free form of a
language that has a given sound and
meaning and syntactic function. (1)a
minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity
(3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can
function alone in a sentence
Sound and
meaning
（声音与意义）
: almost
arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the
sound which stands for a thing or an
idea and the actual thing and idea
itself”
Sound and form
（读音和形式）
:
不统一的四个原因
（
1
）
the
English alphabet was adopted
from the
Romans,which does not have a separate letter to
represent each other
（
2
）
the
pronunciation has changed more rapidly than
spelling over the years
（
3
）
some of
the
difference were creates by the early scribes
（
4
）
the
borrowings is an important
channel of
enriching the English vocabulary
Vocabulary
（词汇）
:
all the words in a language make up its vocabulary
Classification of English
Words
：
By use
frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary
By notion:content words&functional
words
By origin:native words&borrowed
words
The basic word
stock
（基本词汇）
: is the
foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over
centuries and forms the common core of
the language. Though it constitute a small
percentage of the EV, it is the most
important part of vocabulary.
The
Fundamental Features of the Basic Word
Stock(
基本词汇的特征
)
:
1)All-National
character
（全民通用性
most
important
）
2)Stability
（相对稳定性）
3)Productivity
（多
产性）
4)Polysemy
（多义性）
5)Collocability
（
可搭配性）
没有上述特征的
word
s:
(1)Terminology(
术语
)
(2)Jargon
（行话）
(3)slang
（俚语）
(4)Argot
（暗语）
（
5
）
Dialect
al words(
方言
) (6)
Archaisms
（古语）
(7)
Neologisms
（新
词语）
:N
eologisms means newly-created words or
expressions, or words that have taken
on new meanings.(email)
Content words/notional
words
实词
(
cloud,
run walk, never, five, frequently
) and
functional words/empty
words
虚词
(
on, of,
and, be, but
)
Native Words and Borrowed Words
Native
words
（本族语词）
: known as Anglo-
Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words
brought to Britain in the 5th century
by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic
word-stocks).Two other
features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in use
Borrowed words/Loan
words
（外来语词）
: words taken
over from foreign
languages.(80% of
modern EV)
4 Types of loan words:
1)
denizens(
同化词
): (shirt from
skyrta(ON))
2) aliens
（非同化词
/
外来词）
:are borrowed
words which have retained their original
pronunciation and spelling (kowtow
(CH)
磕头
)
3)
translation loans(
译借词
):
按其他语言方式组成英语
long time
no see (from China)
4) semantic
loans
（借义词）：
they are not
borrowed with reference to the form,but their
meanings are borrowed
Chapter 2 the development of the
English Vocabulary
The Indo-European
Language Family(
印欧语系
)
The Eight Groups in Indo-
European Family of Languages
（
8
大印欧语群）
The
Eastern set:
（
1
）
The
Balto-slavic Group
（波罗的
-
斯拉夫语族）：
Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,C
zech etc.
（
2
）
The
Indo-Iranian Group
（印度
-
伊朗语族）：
Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.
(3)The Armenian
Group
（亚美尼亚语族）：
Armenian.
(4)The Albanian
Group
（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：
Albanian.
The Western set:
(5)The
Hellenic Group
（古希腊语族）：
Greek.
(6)The Italian
Group
（意大利语族）：
Latin ,Romance
languages(French,Italian,Spanish,
portuguese,Romanian) etc.
(7)The Celtic Group
（凯尔特语族）：<
/p>
Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.
(8)The Germanic
Group
（日耳曼语族）：
Fle
mish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian,
Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.
The Three Stages of Development of the
English Vocabulary:
1 Old English
(450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I
high inflected language.
2 Middle
English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer
inflections
3 Modern English (1500-up
to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words
come
almost directly from classical
languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly
lost with
just a few h has evolved from
a synthetic language(Old English) to the
present analytic language.
Modes of Vocabulary
Development(
词汇的发展模式
):
1)creation
创造新词：<
/p>
the formation of new words by using the
existing
materials,namely
toots,affixes and other
elements.(
最重要方式
)
2)semantic
change
旧词新义
:does
not increase the number of word forms but create
many more new useages of the words.
3)
borrowing
借用外来词
:constitute
merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words
Reviving words or obsolete words also
contributes to the growth of English vocabulary
though quite insignificant.
Chapter 3 Word Formation I
M
orpheme(
词素
)
:the
smallest functioning unit in the composition of
words
Allomorph(
词素变体
< br>)
: is a different variant form of a
morpheme
，
differ in
phonological
and spelling form, but at
the same in function and meaning
Type
of Morpheme(
词素的分类
)
（
1
）
Free
Morphemes
（自由词素）
: have
complete meaning in themselves and can be used
as free grammatical units in sentences.
A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself.
(independent).
（
2
）
Bound
Morpheme(
粘着语素
): A bound
morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.
Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1)
bound root(
粘附词根
)
(2)Affix(
词缀
)
Affixes can be put into two groups:
1)Inflectional affixes
(
屈折词缀
):affixes attached to
the end of words to indicate
grammatical relationships are
inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.
2)Derivational
affixes(
派生词缀
): A) prefix: A
prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An
adjective
suffix
（形容词后缀）
that is added to the stem, whatever
class is belongs to , the
result will
be an adjective.
Free Morpheme =free
root
（自由词根）
Morpheme(
词素
)
Bound root
prefix
bound
derivational
affix
suffix
inflectional
Root and
stem
（词根和词干）
The
differences between root and stem:
A
root is the basic form of a word which cannot be
further analyzed without total loss of
identity.
A stem
is the surplus part after the cutting of
inflectional morpheme in a word with
inflectional morphemes,can be further
analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Chapter 4 Word-Formation
II(
构词法
)
tion
词缀法
（
Derivation
< br>派生法）
：
the formation of
words by adding word-formaing
or
derivational affixes to stem.
（
< br>1
）
Prefixation(
前缀法
)
：
It's the
formation of new words by adding a prefixes to
stems.
1)Negative
prefixes(
否定前缀
):
un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,y(not obey)
2)Reversative
prefixes
（逆反前缀）
:
un-,de-
，
dis- etc.
unwrap(open)
3) Pejorative prefixes: mi
s
（贬义前缀）：
mis-
，
mal-, pseudo- duct(bad
behaviour)
4) Prefixes of
degree or size(
程度前缀
)
< br>：
arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,m
ini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect
.
overweight
5) Prefixes of
orientation and attitude
（倾向态度前缀）
:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro-
-nuclear
6)Locative prefixes
（方位前缀）
:extra-,fore-,inter-,i
ntra-,tele-,trans-, etc.
extraordinary(more than ordinary)
7) Prefixes of time and order
（时间和顺序前缀）
:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re-
etc. monorail(one
rail)
8)
Number prefixes
（数字前缀）
:uni-
，
mono-,
bi-
，
di-,
tri-,multi-
，
poly-
，
semi-
，
ual(conce
rning two languages)
9) Miscellaneous
prefixes
（混杂前缀）：
auto-, neo-,
pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy
chairman)
(2)Suffixation
（后缀法）
: It's the formation of a
new word by adding suffixes to stems.
1)noun suffixes
2)adjective suffixes
3)Adverb suffixes
4)verb suffixes
nding
复合法
（
also called
composition
）
Compounding: is the formation of new
words by joining two or more stems
Compounds are written in three ways: so
lid
连写
(airmail)
，
hyphenated
带连字符
(air-
conditioning)and open
分开写
(air
force, air raid)
Formation of
compounds
（复合词的形式）
（
1
）
noun
compounds
：
e.g. : air +
plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot
（
2
）
adjective
compounds
：
e.g.
acid + head = acid-head
（
3
）
verb
compounds
：
e.g.
house + keep =
housekeep
sion
转类法
Conversion: is the formation of new
words by converting words of one class to another
class.
（功能转换，又叫零派生
.functional shift/zero-
derivation
）
ng
拼缀法
Blending : is the formation of new
words by combining parts of two words or a word
plus a
part of another word. e.g: motor
+ hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula +
translation = FORTRAN
ng
截短法
Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by
cutting a part off the original and using what
remains instead.e.g. plane from
airplane,
phone from
telephone.
四种形式：
1).Front
clippings
删节前面
(phone from telephone)
2).Back
clippings
删节后面
(dorm from dormitory)
3).Front and back clippings
前后删节
(flu from influenza)
4).Phrase clippings
短语删节
(pop from popular music)
my
首字母缩写法
Acronymy:is the process of forming new
words by joining the initial letters of names of
social and political organizations or
special noun phrases and technical terms.
< br>（
1
）
Initialism<
/p>
（首字母缩写词法）
: initialisms are
words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.:
BBC(for British Broadcasting
corporation)
（
2
）<
/p>
Acronym
（首字母拼音法）
:Ac
ronyms are words formed from initial letters but
pronounced as a normal word.
E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)
-formation
（逆生法，逆
构词）
Back-formation is
considered to be the
opposite process
of suffixation. It?s the method of
creating words by removing the supposed
suffixes. (greed from greedy)
From Proper
Name(
专有名词转成法
):
Names of people, places, book, and
tradenames (e.g.: sir watt
siemens(
人名
) --
watt
（瓦
特，电功率单位）
Chapter 5 Word
Meaning
The meanings of
“Meaning”
(“
意义
”
的意义
)
Ref
erence
(
所指
):It is
the relationship between language and the word. It
is the arbitrary
and conventional. It
is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of
context, it can refer to
something
specific.
Concept
（概念）
:which
is beyond language, is the result of human cogniti
on(
认
识
),reflecting
the objective world in the human mind.
Sense
（意义）
:It
denotes the relationship inside the language. ?The
sense of an expression
is its place in
a system of semantic relat
ionships with
other expressions in the language.?
Motivation
(
理据
)
：
It accounts for the
connection between the linguistic symbol and its
meaning.
1) Onomatopoeic
motivation
（拟声理据）
:words whose
sounds suggest their meaning, for
these
words were creates by imitating the natural sounds
or noises. Knowing the sounds of
the
words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang,
ping-pong, ha ha.
2)Morphological
motivation
（
形态理据）
:multi-
morphemic words and the meaning of many
are the sum total of the morphemes
combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt
.
例外：
black market,
ect.
3)Semantic
motivation
（词义理据）：
refers to
the mental associations suggested by the
conceptual meaning of a word. It
explains the connection between the literal sense
and
figurative sense of the word.
E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)
4)Etymological motivation
（
词源理据）
:the
history of the word explains the meaning of the
word. E.g:pen-feather
Types of
meaning(
词义的类别
)
tical
Meaning
（语法意义）
:indicates the
grammatical concept or relationships
(becomes important only in actual
context)
l Meaning
（词汇意义）
(Lexical
meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-
meaning)
Lexical meaning has 2
components
内容
: Conceptual
meaning(
概念意义
) and
associative
meaning(
关联意义
)
1
）
Conceptual
meaning(
概念意义
): also known as
denotative meaning(
外延意义
) is
the
meaning given in the dictionary and
forms the core of word-meaning.
2
）
Associative
meaning(
关联意义
):is the
secondary meaning supplemented to the
conceptual meaning.
[4types:
（
1
）
Connotative
（
内
涵
意
义
）
< br>：
the
overtones
or
associations
suggested
by
the
conceptual
meaning,
traditionally
known
as
connotations.(
例如
“
母亲
”
经常与
“
爱
”“
关心
”“
温柔
”
联系起来
)
（
2
）
Stylistic
（文体意义）：
man
y
words
have
stylistic
features,
which
make
them
appropriate for different contexts.
（
3
）
Affective
（感情意义）
：
indicates the speaker?s
attitude towards the person
or thing
in question.
这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义
appreciative & pejorative
（
4
）
Collocative
（搭配意义）：
i
s the part of the word-meaning suggested by the
words
before or after the word in
discussion.]
Chapter 6
--Sense relation and semantic field
（语义关系和语义场）
Polysemy
（多义关系）
Two approached to
polysemy
（多义关系的两种研究方法）
:
onic
approach(
历时方法
)
：
from the diachronic point
of view, polysemy is assumed
to be the
result of growth and development of the semantic
structure of one and same
word. First
meaning is the primary meaning , the later
meanings are called derived
meanings.
2. synchronic approach
(
共时方法
) : synchronically,
polysemy is viewed as the coexistence
of various meanings of the same word in
a certain historical period of
time.
基本意义是
central meaning ,
次要意义是
derived meaning.
Two processes of
development
（词义的两种发展类型）
:
1.
radiation
（辐射型）：
is
a semantic process in which the primary meaning
stands at the
centre and the secondary
meanings proceed out of it in every direction like
rayes. (e.g:
face, neck)
2.
concatenation<
/p>
（连锁型）
:is the semantic process
in which the meaning of a word move
gradually
away
from
its
first
sense
by
successive
shifts
until
there
is
not
a
sign
of
connection between the
sense that is finally developed and that which the
term had at
the beginning.(e.g:treacle)
3.
In radiation,
each of the derived meaning is directly connected
to the primary meaning.
In
concatenation, each of the later meaning is
related only to the preceding one like
chains. Though the latest sense can be
traced back to the original, there is no direct
connection in between.
4.
They
are
closely
related,
being
different
stages
of
the
development
leading
to
polysemy.
Generally,
radiation
precedes
concatenation.
In
many
cases,
the
two
processes
work together, complementing each other.
Homonymy
（同形同音异义关系）
:words
different in meaning but either identical both in
sound and spelling or identical only in
sound or spelling.
Types of
homonyms(
同音同形异义关系的类别
)
1
）
Perfect homonym
s
（完全同音同形异义词）
：
word
s identical both in sound and spelling,
but different in meaning.
2)
Homographs
（同形异义词）
:words
identical only in spelling, but different in sound
and
meaning.(
最多最常见
) <
/p>
3
）
Homophones
（同音异义词）
：
words identical
only in sound but different in spelling and
meaning.
Origins of homonyms
(
同形同音异义词的来源
)
1
）
change in sound
and spelling
：
(eare-ear,
lang-long, langian-long)
2
）
borrowing
(feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )
3
）
Shortening(
缩略<
/p>
): (ad-advertisement,)
The differentiation of Homonyms from Po
lysemes
（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别
)
：
1)The fundamental
difference : Homonymy refers to different words
which happen to
share the same form and
polysemy are the one and same word which has
several
distinguishable meanings.