-
UNIT ONE CONTRACT LAW
Section A
Understanding of Contract
1.
They claim that the
definition of the American Restatement ignores the
bargain
—
the exchange of
equivalents which is the essence of a
contract.
法学家们声称《美国合同法重述》忽略
了契约的本质，即等价交换是合同的本质。
2.
Thus to say
that a contract can simply be ―a
promise‖ is to overlook the fact that there is ge
nerally some act or promise given in
return for the other promise before that promise
becomes a
contract.
因此说合同是一个承诺就忽略了一个事实，
即在承诺成为一个合同之前，
通常有一些行为或
承诺是为了其他承诺做出的。
3.
These scholars also
argue that all the definitions in terms of
promises or agreements presuppose
that
people only enter into contractual relations after
they have made some agreement or promise.
这些学者还是对这些定义持不同观点，
他们认为依据合同承诺或契约所作解释的
先决条件是
当事人业已达成协议或承诺之后构成了合同关系。
4.
One is that a person who
induces another to rely upon him and change his
position, ought not to let
that person
down, and the other is that a person who does a
service to another or renders him some
benefit, ought generally to be
recompensed for his trouble.
一种观点是诱导他人依赖于他，
并促使其改变立场的人，
不应
该让人失望。
另一种观点是帮
他人的忙，致使其获得利益的人，
一般都应该为其所造成的法律纠纷而获得赔偿。
5.
After the above discussion
we come to know the Contract may be defined as an
agreement, a
promise or a set of
promises, which create legal liabilities rather
than moral obligations, enforceable
by
the law between two or more persons to do or
forebear from doing some act or
acts
；
their
intentions being to create legal
relations and not merely to exchange mutual
promises, both having
given something,
or having promised to give something of value as
consideration for any benefit
derived
from the agreement or the promise except a
transaction agreement by deed.
经过以上的讨论
我们可以看出合同可能会被定义为协议、
承诺，
它所产生的是法
律义务而非
道德义务，
可由两个或两个以上的人之间的法律或祖
先做一些行为；
他们的意图是创设法律
关系，
< br>而不仅仅交换彼此的承诺，
或者承诺给予一些有价值的东西，
考虑任何利益的协议或
承诺契约交易协议的除外。
6.
A transaction by deed
derives its legally binding quality from the
special way in which it is made
rather
than from the operation of the contract law.
某项以契约形式的成功交易源于其本身具有法律约束力的特许
交易特征，
而不是合同法的操
作。
7.
The definition of contract
in the Chinese contract law stresses its
functions,saying that a contract
is the
manifestation of intention to establish, change or
terminate the civil relationship between two
or more parties.
中国的合同法的定义强
调的是合同的功能，
指出合同所要表现的形式是确立、
改变或终
止合
同双方或多方的民事关系。
8.
Making a contract is a
civil juristic act done by both sides. At least
two parties shall enter, and
express
their genuine intention. Otherwise a contract
cannot be established. The purpose to make a
contract is to bring out a certain
civil juristic effect, including establishing,
changing or terminating
the civil
relationship between the two parties. Making a
contract is a legal act rather than illegal act.
Unlawfully established contracts are
null or void. Contractual obligations are often
imposed on all
ing to the difference
among their apperance,it falls into precontractual
obligation,after contractual obligation
and the subordinated obligation in contract
performing.
签订合同是甲乙双方的民事法律行为所至。
< br>至少双方均应积极参与，
并表达真实意图。
否则
合同就不成立。
签订合同的目的是为了确立一定的民事法律效力，
其中包括双方民事法律关
系的确定、
变更和终
止。
签订合同是一种法律行为而不是非法行为。
非法订立的合同
均为无
效合同。
合同义务通常是强加给合同各方的。
依据产生阶段的不同，
合同义务可以分为先合
同义
务、后合同义务、合同履行中的附随义务三种。
UNIT TWO INTERNATIONAL DIVOICE:
LITIGATING MARITAL PROPERTY AND
SUPPORT
RIGHTS
Section A Jurisdiction and
Procedure in International Divorce Litigation
1.A court may also exercise personal
jurisdiction based on a respondent's general
appearance in a
proceeding, and a
respondent who files a responsive pleading without
objecting to jurisdiction is
typically
deemed to have waived any of these defenses.
法庭还可以基于被告出现在诉讼程序的事实或者其在答辩状中
没有提出管辖权异议而获得
应诉管辖权。
2.
Before relying on Burnham-
type service to confer personal jurisdiction on
the court, counsel
should be aware that
foreign jurisdictions may refuse to enforce a
decree entered on this basis, as tag
jurisdiction is widely rejected outside
the United States.
在依此判例赋予法院
属人管辖权之前，
律师应该意识到外国司法机关可能拒绝执行这种判决，
因为美国以外的国家普遍不承认“接触的管辖权”。
3.
Beyond the question of
jurisdiction, due process requires that a
respondent must be afforded
notice and
an opportunity for a hearing, even in the context
of an ex-parte divorce.
撇开管辖权的问题，
即使是在单方面的离婚诉讼中，
正当法律程序也要求给予被告观看和听
证的机会。
4.
The question of whether
substituted service is permitted is determined by
the law of the forum, but
the means
utilized must also comply with the laws of the
country in which service is made.
州法律将决定是否允许替代送达
,
但是所运用的
这些方法必须遵守传票送达国国家的法律。
5.
Service of process on an
individual in a foreign country is subject to both
the law of the state
where the action
has been filed and any applicable provisions of
foreign or international law.
对身在国外的个人
进行送达受州法律以及可引用的外国法和国际法条款的约束。
6.
From the perspective of
courts in the United States, financial orders that
satisfied jurisdictional
rules in the
country where they were entered, but which were
not based on facts that would give rise
to personal jurisdiction over the
respondent spouse, would not satisfy the due
process requirements
for recognition
and enforcement in the United States.
从美国法院的角度来看
,
财产判决虽然
符合作出判决的国家的管辖权规则，但却不是基于引
起对被告的属人管辖权的事实，这会
因不符合法定诉讼程序的要求而不被认可和执行。
7.
Under this rule of
divisible divorce jurisdiction, an ex-parte
divorce decree based on the
petitioner's domicile or residence
within the forum state is entitled to full faith
and credit in every
state. Court orders
concerning marital property and support rights are
not entitled to full faith and
credit,
however, unless the forum court had personal
jurisdiction over the respondent. Based on the
same policies, courts in the United
States give effect to many foreign ex-parte
divorce decrees as a
matter of comity,
but do not recognize and enforce financial orders
entered by a foreign court unless
that
court had full personal jurisdiction.
<
/p>
在可分割的离婚诉讼管辖权原则下，
州法院基于原告在法院所在国
的住所或居住地而作出的
单方面离婚判决在每个州都能得到充分信任
（效力）
。
但若涉及婚姻财产分割和抚养义务时，
只有该管辖法院对原被告双方都有属人管辖权时，
其判决才会被信任和认
可。
基于上述规则，
美国法院以礼让规则承认很多国外单方离婚
判决的效力，
但并不承认和执行外国法院作出的
财产判决，除非
该法院已经具有完全的属人管辖权。
UNIT THREE A FAMILY LAW PERSPECTIVE ON
PARENTAL INCARCERATION
Section A Family
Law and Child Development
1.
Family law is unique among
American legal fields in making children's
interests paramount, as it
does in the
context of custody disputes between a child's
legal parents.
当儿童的法定父母因监护权发生纠纷时，
在整个美国法律领域中，
只有婚姻家庭法是优先保
护儿童利益的。
2.
By
elevating children's interests over other
concerns, custody courts provide an unparalleled
examination of children's development,
and how that development is affected by each
child's
placement in one or another
caretaking environment.
通过权
衡儿童各方面的利益，
家事法院制定了一套审查儿童未来发展及如何通过安置儿童的
监护环境影响该发展的规则。
3.
Courts assessing
children's best interests in order to resolve
custody disputes take for granted that
the ways in which children are brought
up will shape the type of adults they become.
法院在解决监护权纠纷时，
是通过预
测儿童在该照管下将被塑造成何种类型之成人，
来评估
儿童利益
之最大化的。
While custody courts
care about children's day-to-day happiness, they
are especially concerned with
how
children's current experience will affect their
future. The custody literature therefore provides
extensive analysis of the ways in which
childhood experience and early caregiving
arrangements
can alter a child's course
of development into adulthood, for better or for
worse.
监护法院在关心儿童的日常幸福感的同时，<
/p>
更关注儿童现在的经历会如何影他们的未来。
因
< br>此，
与监护权有关的文献对于孩提时代的经历以及早期关爱环境或好或坏地影响孩
子的成长
历程的方式给出了大量的分析。
4.
The custody literature
reflects a consensus that the conditions most
likely to foster a child's
well-being
are continuity and stability, and that,
conversely, any disruption of a child's
environment
and caretaking arrangement
can inflict developmental harm.
有关监护权的文献一致认为，
抚养儿童最好的条件是稳定而持续的环境，
相反的，
任何割裂
儿童成长环境与抚养安排
的事情都可能对儿童的发展造成损害。
5.
Custody courts will
discuss with a great degree of
nuance
—
and often with the
aid of expert
psychological
testimony
—
the harms that
disruption of the parent-child tie can inflict on
a child
given her particular stage of
development.
监护权法庭将会进行细微而深入
的讨论，
经常采用来自心理专家的证词的帮助，
以此来说明
父母与儿童之间的割裂对儿童成长的特殊时期带来的伤害。
6.
Separation of an infant
from a parent can disrupt the bonding process that
is the foundation of the
child's future
emotional and intellectual growth, and separation
of parent and toddler can impede the
toddler's first steps toward autonomy
and independence, which the toddler takes by
building on the
trust developed during
the infant-parent bonding process.
将婴儿
与父母分离会割裂父母与婴儿相融合的过程，
而这个相融合的过程是未来儿童情感和
智力发育的基础。
将父母和幼儿的分离将会妨碍幼儿走向自我约束与
独立自主的第一步，
而
这一步则是幼儿与父母在相融合过程中建
立信任关系的关键。
7.
Such
deprivation, moreover, is often attended by
additional potential harms in the form of
frequent moves, educational disruption,
and parental stress, each of which, according to
the custody
case law, can jeopardize a
child's emotional and intellectual development,
with long-term effects.
像这类
（潜在监护人的）破产，往往跟经常性的迁徙、教育中断、紧张的父母关系等因素交
织在
一起，
增加了对儿童的伤害。
依照有关监护权的判例法，
前述种种因素均能对儿童的情
感和智力发展造成持久的影响。
UNIT FOUR SITUATED
JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS
section A an analysis of situated
justice
rs
find
that
subjects
often
express
greater
concern
for
a
fair
process
than
for
the
substantive outcome of a
legal encounter.
学者们发现
,
研究对象通常更关注官司中的程序公正而不是实体结果公正。
2. Absent a fair process, respondents
view legal outcomes as suspect and lose confidence
in the
ability
of legal institutions to resolve future
grievances.
公正程序的缺失使得研究对象们怀
疑法律后果
,
从而对法律部门解决未来法律纠纷的能力丧
失信心。
e
Lind
and
Tylers
recognition
that
there
are
situationally
based
differences
in
the
meaning of procedural
justice
”，
much of the
research that has followed their lead is based on
discrete and hypothetical encounters
with law and legal authorities like the police.
尽管林德和泰勒承认“程序公正的意义因情景差异而不同”<
/p>
,
其领导下的研究多半以彼此独
立、臆想
性的法律纠纷和法律机构如警察局为基础。
s
capture research participants' feelings about
fairness abstractly and are elicited through
either forced -choice surveys and
interview protocols or social psychological
experiments that use
vignettes and
simulated conflict.
该研究结论只是抽象性地
< br>(
不具体
)
捕获了研究参与者们
(
研究对象
)
对公正的感觉
,
而该结论的
获得
,
要么是通过强迫选择调查和采访协议
,
要么是通过使用电视短剧和模拟纠纷的社会心理
学实验。
e it to say, much of the
procedural justice research assumes that it is the
analyst's job to
distill
the
from
the
thought
from
action,
and
process
from
outcome,
regardless
of
whether
these
distinctions
have
any
relationship
to
how
actual
litigants
describe
their legal experiences.
不用多说
,
很多这类程序公正研究都认为<
/p>
,
找出主观跟客观、思想与行动、程序与结果的区别
,
是分析者的职责所在
,
不
论这些差异是否与现实情境中的诉讼当事人如何描述其法律体验有
关。
< br>
say
this
a
bit
differently,
we
should
not
rely
on
a
thin
operationalization
of
fairness
if
we
believe that this key concept is
culturally thick.
换句话说
,
既然这一关键概念有着深厚的文化底蕴
,
我们就不
应该把公正的概念作公式化的肤
浅的解读。
constraints
can
include
the
opportunities
and
normative
categories
that
the
law
establishes; the roles of professionals
like judges and lawyers; and material, social, and
cultural
resources such as well worn
organizational routines for managing disputes.
这些限制因素包括法律产生的各种机遇和规范
;
像法官和律师这样的专业角色
;
以及物质、社
会和文化资源
,
譬如
那些老生常谈的管理纠纷的体制性惯例。
develop
a situated justice framework, then, we draw from
legal consciousness and cultural
sociology
to
analyze
internal
schema
in
their
social
contexts
and
from
dispute
processing
to
analyze the constraints of legal
structures.
为了构建情境公正的理论研究框架
,
我们按照法律意识和文化社会学来分析其社会情境中的
内部模式
,
按照争议处理程序来分析法律结构的限制性因素。
both the literature on legal
consciousness and cultural sociology demonstrate,
the ways in
which
people
construct
cultural
categories
are
inseparable
from
the
conditions
of
possibility
within their
legal, social, economic,and institutional
environments.
正如有关法律意识和文化社会学的文献所显示的那样
,
人们形成文化差异的方式与其法律、
社会
、经济和制度环境下的可能性条件密切相关。
antly,
a person's legal schema is contingent on the
specific contexts in which he or she
engages
law
(or
avoids
it)-
-which
includes
the
legal
environment
as
well
as
the
structure
of
markets,
the
workplace,
and
the
government's
legal
categories
and
classifications
with
consequences for
everyday behavior.
重要的是
,
一个人的法律模式取决于其所处
(
或避免
)
之具体法律情境——包括法律环境、
市场<
/p>
结构、工作场所、政府的法律类别和日常行为的后果。
when they lack this knowledge, people
are reluctant to make a claim because they have
insufficient
access
to
lawyers,
do
not
want
to
be
classified
as
a
victim,
or
doubt whether
they
deserve legal protections.
使人们缺乏这方面的知识
,
他们也不愿
意提起诉讼
,
因为他们难以获得律师的帮助
,
不想被归
类为受害者
,
或者怀疑他们是否应该得到法律保护。
,
our
approach
begins
with
the
interpretive
assumption
that
people
'build
up
”
the
meanings of their legal encounters
through both mundane and extraordinary
interactions.
因此
,
我们的研究方案首先着手于一种阐释性设定
,
即通过平凡的和非
凡的互动
,
人们逐渐形
成了对其法律经
历的理解。
a more general level,
key cultural constructs like fairness should not
be easily dismissed as
epiphenomenal
window
dressing
atop
the
more
causal
material
underpinnings
of
legal
institutions.
在更一般的层面
,
< br>一些关键文化构想
,
如公平
,<
/p>
不应该被轻易抛弃
,
仅仅是因为它被看做
一种带
有副作用的窗口
,
粉饰了更合因
果关系的法律体系的物质基础。
14. As
cultural theorists argue, any serious contemporary
analysis of how power and inequality
are produced and reproduced within
institutions such as courts must consider the
enactment of
cultural concepts.
文化理论家认为
,
任何正式的当代的对权力和不平等是
如何在法院这种机构产生和复制的分
析
,
都必须考虑文化概念的制定。
sum,legal
situations
and
constructs
establish
the
very
conditions
of
possibility
that
an
individual claimant encounters by
setting up the arena,the rules ,and the
ideological parameters
within which
participants understand and play the game.
总之，
法律制度和结构建立的可能性的条件的个人申请会遭遇到设置舞台上，<
/p>
规则和意识形
态参数内，参与者理解和玩游戏的影响。
Applied to the study of
employment discrimination, it reveals litigants'
conceptions of fairness in
the context
of their real life institutional encounters with
law and the role of these conceptions in
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