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Unit 3
Preparatory work
1.
Deborah
Tannen
is
University
Professor
and
Professor of Linguistics at Georgetown
University and
author
of
many
books
and
articles
about
how
the
language
of
everyday
conversation
affects
relationships.
She is best
known as the author of You
Just
Don
‘t
Un
derstand:
Women
and
Men
in
Conversation, which was on the New York
Times best
seller list for nearly four
years, including eight months
as
No.
1,
and
has
been
translated
into
31
languages.
This
is
the
book
that
brought
gender
differences in
communication style to the forefront of
public
awareness.
Her
most
recent
book,
You
Were
Always
Mom’s
Favorite!
Sisters
in
Conversation
Throughout Their Lives, also
a New York Times best
seller, received a Books for a Better
Life Award and was
featured on
20/20(
美国电视节目）
and
NPR(National
Public Radio)'s Morning
Edition.
Among
her
other
books,
You're
Wearing
THAT?:
Understanding
Mothers
and
Daughters
in
Conversation spent ten weeks on the New
York Times
best seller list; Talking
from 9 to 5: Women and Men
at
Work
was
a
New
York
Times
Business
best
seller;
The
Argument
Culture:
Stopping
America's
War
of
Words
received
the
Common
Ground
Book
Award;
and I
Only Say This Because I Love You: Talking to Your
Parents, Partner, Sibs, and Kids When
You're All Adults
received a Books for
a Better Life Award.
In
addition to her seven books for general audiences,
Tannen is author or editor of sixteen
books and over
one hundred articles for
scholarly audiences.
She has
also
published
poems,
short
stories,
plays
and
personal essays.
Academic
interactional
interests:
gender
and
language,
sociolinguistics,
conversational
interaction,
cross-cultural
communication,
frames
theory, conversational vs. literary
discourse, and new
media discourse.
Main publications:
You
Just
Don't
Understand:
Women
and
Men
in
Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.
That's
Not
What
I
Meant!:
How
Conversational
Style
Makes
or
Breaks
Relationships.
NY:
William
Morrow,
1986.
Gender and Discourse.
NY & Oxford: Oxford University
Press,
1994.
2
）
Edward
Sapir
Edward Sapir (/s
??
p
??
r/;
1884
–
1939) was an American
anthropologist-linguist,
who
is
widely
considered
to
be
one
of
the
most
important
figures
in
the
early
development
of
the
discipline
of
linguistics.
Sapir
studied
the
ways
in
which
language
and
culture
influence
each
other,
and
he
was
interested
in
the
relation
between linguistic differences, and differences
in
cultural
world
views.
This
part
of
his
thinking
was
developed by his student
Benjamin Lee Whorf into the
principle
of
linguistic
relativity
or
the
hypothesis.
2)
John Joseph Gumperz
John
Joseph
Gumperz
(January
9,
1922
–
March
29,
2013)
was
an
American
linguist
and
academic.
Gumperz was, for
most of his career, a professor at the
University of California in Berkeley.
His research on the
languages of India,
on code-switching in Norway, and
on
conversational interaction, has benefitted the
study
of
sociolinguistics,
discourse
analysis,
linguistic
anthropology, and
urban anthropology.
2) E. M. Forster
E.M.
Forster, in
full
Edward
Morgan
Forster
(born
January
1,
1879, London,
England
—
died
June
7,
1970,
Coventry, Warwickshire), British novelist,
essayist,
and social and literary
critic. His fame rests largely on
his
novels Howards End
（霍华德庄园）
(1910) and A
Passage to India
（印度之旅）
(1924) and on a large
body of criticism. He is known best for
his ironic and
well-plotted
novels
examining
class
difference
and
hypocrisy in early 20th-
century British society. He was
nominated
for
the
Nobel
Prize
in
Literature
in
13
different years.
2) Robert
Kaplan
American applied
linguist.
His
research
area
covers
applied linguistics,
discourse analysis, language policy,
language planning, and ESL/EFL
Teaching. He is most
famous for his
contribution in Contrastive
Rhetoric
（对
比修辞）
, a
term he first coined in 1966.
Kaplan has
authored or
edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in
scholarly
journals
and
chapters
in
books,
and
more
than
85
book
reviews
and
other
ephemeral
（
short-<
/p>
lived) pieces in various
newsletters(
时事通讯）
, as well
as
9
special
reports
to
the
U.S.
government
and
to
governments elsewhere.
3)
pragmatics
Pragmatics is a systematic
way of explaining language
use in
context. It seeks to explain aspects of meaning
which cannot be found in the plain
sense of words or
structures,
as
explained
by
semantics.
As
a
field
of
language
study, pragmatics is fairly new. Its origins lie
in
philosophy
of
language
and
the
American
philosophical
school
of
pragmatism.
As
a
discipline
within
language
science,
its
roots
lie
in
the
work
of
(Herbert) Paul Grice on
conversational
implicature
（会
话含义）
and the cooperative
principle
（合作原则）
,
J. L. Austin and John Searle on speech
act
（言语行为）
,
and on
the work of Stephen Levinson, Penelope Brown
and Geoff Leech on politeness.
4) Cohesion refers to the use of
various phonological,
grammatical,
and/or lexical means to link sentences or
utterances into a well-connected,
larger linguistic unit
such
as
a
paragraph
or
a
chapter.
In
other
words,
cohesion
achieves
well-connectedness
by
means
of
linguistic forms.
Example: Mary is a secretary. She works
in a law firm.
5) Pause is
a temporary and brief break in the flow of
speech, which is often classified into
filled
pause
（有
声停顿）
and unfilled or silent
pause
（无声停顿）
. The
former is taken up or filled by a
hesitation form like ah,
er,
and
um.
In
contrast,
the
latter
is
not
filled
by
a
hesitation form. In other words, a
silent pause is one
where there is no
vocalization
（发声）
.
Critical reading
I. Comprehension Check
I. Understanding the text
(1) The main purpose of this article is
to illustrate eight
levels
of
cross-cultural
differences
in
non-verbal
aspects of
communication.
(2)
We
can
understand
the
nature
of
language
by
observing
it
in
communication
and
in
contact
with
other systems of communication.
(3) Pacing and pausing,
listenership. In deciding when
to
talk
and
what
to
say,
the
speaker
usually
takes
a
conscious
speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing
and
in
showing
listenership
in
a
conversation,
one
does not need to stop and think for a
decision.
Section 2.1 starts with a
direct thesis statement. Then
the
author
explains
it
with
an
expert’s
(Scollon)
research findings and examples.
In section 2.2 the author
raises a number of questions
(in
paras
7,
9
and
11)
and
responds
to
them
with
relevant research
findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and
her own personal experience.
Section
2.3
is
also
organized
in
the
order
of
“question
-
answer”.
Section
2.4
illustrates
cross-cultural
differences
in
listenership with two examples, gaze
(paras 21 and 22)
and loud responses
(para 23), and then moves on to
the
conclusion (para 24).
Section 2.5: example-discussion.
Section
2.6:
personal
experience
and
a
very
brief
interpretation.
Section 2.7: the thesis
(para 30 “how to be indirect is
culturally relative”) and discussion
about the cases of
American-non-
American differences (American men,
women, Greek and Japanese).
Section 2.8: definition and
illustration.
(5) The experience in a
dinner party in paragraph 12
indicates
that
(1)
people
from
different
cultures
not
only
differ
in
whether
compliments
should
be
accepted,
rejected
or
deflected,
but
also
in
which
compliments
should
be
accepted/rejected/deflected;
and
(2)
every
culture has its own conventions about
what
to
say
on
particular
occasions,
and
without
knowledge of these conventions, we can
by no means
appropriately interpret the
messages in cross-cultural
communication.
In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first
visit to Greece to
exemplify the cross-
cultural difference in formulaicity,
i.e., what is novel and what is
conventional in different
languages.
(6) Generally speaking, the eight
levels are arranged in
the
order
of
importance,
from
the
core
of
verbal
communication to more
peripheral (secondary) factors.
The
first three levels and the fifth level belong to
what
is said while the last three
center on how it is said. The
fourth
level,
listenership,
is
the
only
level
examined
from the perspective of the hearer.
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