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1. terms
1) translation
Translation is
the
communication
of
the meaning of
a
source-language
text
by
means
of
an equivalent target-
language
text. While
interpreting
—
the
facilitating
of
oral
or
sign-
language
communication
between
users
of
different
languages
—
antedates writing,
translation
began
only
after the appearance of
written literature. There exist partial
translations of the Sumerian Epic of
Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest
Asian languages of the second millennium BCE.
Translators
always
risk
inappropriate spill-
over of
source-language idiom and usage
into
the
target-
languagetranslation.
On
the
other
hand,
spill-overs
have
imported
useful
source-language calques and loanwords
that
have
enriched
the
target
languages.
Indeed,
translators have helped substantially
to shape the languages into which they have
translated.
Owing
to
the
demands
of
business documentation
consequent
to
the Industrial
Revolution that
began
in
the
mid-18th
century,
some
translation
specialties
have
become
formalized, with dedicated schools and
professional associations.
Because
of
the
laboriousness
of
translation,
since
the
1940s
engineers
have
sought
to automate
translation or
tomechanically
aid
the
human
rise
of
the
Internet has
fostered a world-wide
market for translation services and has
facilitated language localization.
Translation studies systematically
study the theory and practice of translation.
2)
Translation
methods
翻译方法是翻译活动中，基于某种翻译策略
，为达到特定的翻译目的所采取的特定的途径、
步骤、手段。
Literal
translation
:
means
not
to
alter
the
original
words
and
sentences,
it
strives
to
keep
the
sentiments and style of
the original. It takes sentences as its basic
units and takes the whole text
into
consideration at the same time in the ideological
context and the style of the original works
and retains as much as possible the
figures of :
纸老虎
paper tiger
word for word
Liberal
translation: is an alternative approach which is
used mainly to convey the
meaning and
spirit of the
original without trying to reproduce its sentence
patterns or figure of speech. Eg
；
Adam
’
s apple
喉结
sense for sense
3) Translation strategies
翻译
策略是翻译活动中，为实现特定的翻译目的所依据的原则和所采纳的方案集合。
A
plan
or policy designed for a
particular purpose.
异化：
Foreignization
尽量不要打扰原作者，
而是把读者带
向原作者。
Schleiermacher :
“
Leave
the author
in piece as much as possible, and move the reader
toward him.
”
尽量保留原文的语言、
文学、文化特质，保留异国风
.
归化：
Domestication
尽量不要打扰原作者，
而是把作者带向读者。
Schleier
macher :
“
Leave the
author in piece as much as possible,
and move the author toward reader.
”
具体表现为在翻译中，
尽量用目的语读者喜闻乐见的语言、文学、文化要
素来替换源语的语言、文学、文化要素，
恪守、回归目的语的语言、文学和文化规范
4)
equivalence
Ii
was
advocated
by
Jakobson.
Through
to
the 1950s
and
1960s,
discussions
in
translation
studies
tended
to
concern
how
best
to
attain
The
term
had
two
distinct
meanings,
corresponding
to
different
schools
of
thought.
In
the
Russian
tradition,
was
usually
a
one-to-
one
correspondence
between
linguistic
forms,
or
a
pair
of
authorized
technical
terms
or
phrases,
such
that
was
opposed
to
a
range
of
However,
in
the
French
tradition
of
Vinay
and
Darbelnet,
drawing
on Bally,
was
the
attainment
of
equal
functional
value,
generally
requiring changes in
form.
Catford's notion of equivalence in 1965 was as in
the French tradition. In the course of the
1970s,
Russian
theorists
adopted
the
wider
sense
of
as
somethingresulting from
linguistic transformations.
At
about
the
same
time,
the
Interpretive
Theory
of
Translation introduced
the
notion
of
deverbalized sense into translation
studies, drawing a distinction between word
correspondences
and sense equivalences,
and showing the difference between dictionary
definitions of words and
phrases
(word
correspondences)
and
the
sense
of
texts
or
fragments
thereof
in
a
given
context
(sense
equivalences).
The
discussions
of
equivalence
accompanied
typologies
of
translation
solutions
(also
called
In 1958 Loh Dianyang's
Translation: Its Principles and Techniques
(
英汉翻译理论与技巧
) drew
on Fedorov and English linguistics to
present a typology of translation solutions
between Chinese
and English.
In these traditions, discussions of the
ways to attain equivalence have mostly been
prescriptive and
have been related to
translator training.
5)
Translation
studies
Translation studies
is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the
systematic study of the theory,
description
and
application
of translation,
interpreting,
and localization.
As
aninterdiscipline,
Translation Studies borrows much from
the various fields of study that support
translation. These
include
comparative
literature,
computer
science,history,linguistics,
philology, philosophy, semioticsand terminology.
The
term translation
studies
was
coined
by
the
Amsterdam-based
American
scholar
James
S.
Holmes
in
his
paper
name
and
nature
of
translation
studies
is
considered
a
foundational
statement
for
the
discipline. In
English,
writers
occasionally
use
the
term
(and
less
commonly
to
refer
to
translation
studies,
and
the
corresponding French term for the
discipline is usually traductologie (as in the
Socié
té
Fran?
aise
de
Traductologie).
In
the
United
States
there
is
a
preference
for
the
term Translation
and
Interpreting
Studies (as
in
the American
Translation
and
Interpreting
Studies
Association),
although
European
tradition
includes
interpreting
within
translation
studies
(as
in
the
European
Society for Translation
Studies).
Early studies
Historically, translation studies has
long been prescriptive (telling translators how to
translate), to
the point that
discussions of translation that were not
prescriptive were generally not considered to
be about translation at all. When
historians of translation studies trace early
Western thought about
translation,
for
example,
they
most
often
set
the
beginning
at
Cicero's
remarks
on
how
he
used
translation
from
Greek
to
Latin
to
improve
his
oratorical
abilities
—
an
early
description
of
what Jerome ended up
calling sense-for-sense translation. The
descriptive history of interpreters in
Egypt
provided
by
Herodotus several
centuries
earlier
is
typically
not
thought
of
as
translation
studies
—
presumably because it does not tell
translators how to translate. In China, the
discussion
on how to translate
originated with the translation of Buddhist sutras
during the Han Dynasty.
6)
Translation schools
?
Functional theories of
translation
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