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外文文献
Staff Training
After
workers
have
been
selected,
they
may
still
lack
the
skills,
knowledge,and
abilities
need
to
perf
orm
successfully.
Most
workers
require
to
do
their
current
jobs
properly.
If
the
organization
wishes
to
place
its
employees
in
more
responsible
positions
in
the
future,
developmental
activities
also
have
to
take
place.
Steps
to
training
and
development
To
receive
the
benefits,
Human
Resource
(HR)
specialists
and
managers
must
assess
the
needs,
objectives,
content,
and
learning
principles
associated
with
training.
The
person
who
is
responsible
for
training
or
development
must
assess
the
needs
of
the
e
mployee
and
the
organization
to
learn
which
objectives
should
be
sought.
Once
objectives
are
set,
the
specific
content
and
learning
principles
are
considered.
。
Needs
assessment
Needs
assessment
diagnoses
current
problems
and
future
challenges
to
be
met
though
training
and
development.
For
example,
competitive
pressure
may
lead
to
downsizing
and
the
restructuring
that
accompanies
it.
As
a
result,
the
remaining
employees
may
need
to
be
more
broadly
trained.
The
individual
employee’s
needs
may
be
determined
by
the
HR
department,
by
supervisors,
or
by
self
-nomination.
To
pinpoint
the
range
of
training
needs
and
define
their
content,
the
HR
department
uses
different
approaches
to
needs
assessment.
It
may
survey
potential
trainees
to
identify
specific
topics
about
which
they
want
to
learn
more.
Of
course,
this
approach
presumes
that
those
surveyed
know
what
training
they
need.
For
new
employees
this
method
is
not
likely
to
be
r
HR-led
approach
is
tasks
the
job
requires.
Then,
once
they
have
an
understanding
of
t
hose
tasks,
specific
plans
are
developed
to
provide
the
necessary
training
so
that
job
incumbents
can
perform
the
tasks.
Training
and
Development
objectives
Needs
result
in
training
and
development
objectives.
These
stated
objectives
then
become
standards
against
which
individual
performance
and
the
program
can
be
measured.
Specific,
measurable,
time-targeted
objectives
give
the
trainer
and
the
trainee
specific
goals
that
can
be
used
to
evaluate
their
success.
If
the
objectives
are
not
met,
failure
gives
the
HR
department
feedback
on
the
program
and
the
participants.
Learning
Principles
Ideally,
training
and
development
are
more
effective
when
the
training
methods
match
the
learning
styles
of
the
participants
and
the
types
of
jobs
needs
by
the
organization.
Form
studies
of
learning,
researchers
have
developedsome
tentative
learning
pri
nciples.
Learning
principles
are
guidelines
to
the
ways
in
which
people
learn
most
effectively.
These
principles
are
participation,repetition,
relevance,
transfe
rence,
and
feedback.
Research
suggests
that
they
apply
equally
to
domestic
and
international
training
situations.
Participation.
Learning
usually
is
quicker
and
longer
lasting
when
the
learner
participation
actively.
Participation
improves
motivation
and
apparently
engages
more
senses
that
reinforce
the
learning
process.
Repetition.
Although
seldom
fun,
repetition
app
arently
etches
a
pattern
into
one’s
memory.
Studying
for
an
examination,
for
ex
ample,
involves
the
repetition
of
key
ideas
so
that
they
can
be
recalled
during
a
test.
Relevance.
Learning
is
helped
when
the
material
to
be
learned
is
meaningful.
For
example,
trainers
usually
explain
the
overall
purposes
of
a
job
to
trainees
before
explaining
specific
tasks.
Transference.
The
more
closely
the
demands
of
the
training
program
match
thedemands
of
a
job,
the
fast
er
a
person
learns
to
master
the
job.
For
example,
pilots
usually
are
trained
in
flight
simulators
because
the
simulators
very
closely
resemble
the
cockpit
and
flight
characteristics
of
the
plane.
Feedback.
Feedback
gives
learners
information
on
their
progress.
With
feedback,
motivated
learners
can
adjust
their
behavior;
without
it,
they
cannot
gauge
theirprogress
and
may
become
discouraged.
Training
and
Development
Approaches
In
selecting
training
and
development
techniques,
trade-offs
exist.
That
is,
no
single
technique
is
always
best;
the
best
method
depends
on:
◆
Cost-
effectiveness
◆
Appropriateness
of
the
facilities
◆
Desired
program
content
◆
Trainee
preferences
and
capabilities
◆
Learning
principles
◆
Trainer
preferences
and
capabilities
The
importance
of
these
six
trade-
offs
depends
on
the
situation.
But
whatever
method
is
selected,
it
has
certain
learning
principles
associated
with
it.
Although
these
trade-offs
affect
the
techniques
used,
HR
specialists
must
be
familiar
with
all
the
techniques
and
learning
principles.
Job
Instruction
training
Job
instruction
training
is
received
directly
on
the
job,
and
so
it
often
called
“on
-the-
job”
training.
It
is
used
primarily
to
teach
workers
how
to
do
their
current
jobs.
A
trainer,
supervisor,
or
coworker
serves
as
the
instructor.
When
it
is
properly
planned
and
executed,
this
method
includes
each
of
learning
principles.
On-the-job
training
(OJT)
includes
several
steps.
First,
the
trainee
receives
an
overview
of
the
job,
its
purpose,
and
its
desired
outcomes.
Then
the
trainerdemonstrates
the
job
to
gi
ve
the
employee
a
model
to
copy.
Next
the
employee
is
allowed
to
mimic
the
trainer’s
example.
Demonstrations
by
the
trainer
and
practice
by
the
trainee
are
repeated
until
the
job
is
mastered.
Finally,
the
employee
performs
the
job
without
supervision,
although
the
trainermay
visit
the
employee
to
see
if
there
are
any
lingering
questions.
Job
Rotation
To
cross-train
employees
in
a
variety
of
jobs,
some
trainers
move
a
traineefrom
job
to
job.
Each
mo
ve
normally
is
preceded
by
job
instruction
training.
Besides
giving
workers
variety
in
their
jobs,
cross-
tra
ining
helps
the
organization
when
vacations,
absences,
downsizing,
or
resignation
occur.
These
programs
seek
to
give
employees
exposure
to
a
variety
of
assignments.
Among
hourly
employees,
job
rotation
is
an
effective
way
to
trainworkers.
Among
manageri
al,
technical,
and
professional
employees,
job
rotationcan
provide
a
broader
perspective,
often
developing
t
hese
employees
for
potential
career
advancement.
Apprenticeships
and
Coaching
Apprenticeships
involve
learning
form
a
more
experienced
employee
or
employees,
though
it
may
be
supplemented
with
off-the-job
classroom
training.
Coaching
is
similar
to
app
renticeships,
although
it
tends
to
be
less
formal
thanan
apprenticeship
program
because
there
are
few
for
mal
classroom
sessions
andbecause
it
is
provided
when
needed
rather
than
being
part
of
a
carefully
planned
program.
Coaching
is
almost
always
handled
by
the
supervisor
or
manger,
not
by
the
HR
depart
ment.
Other
ways
may
also
help
develop
people.
Though
periodic
staff
meetings
or
work
with
task
forces
and
committees,
a
manger
develops
interpersonal
skills,
learns
to
evaluate
information,
and
gains
experience
in
observing other potential models.
Lecture
Lecture
and
other
off-
the-job
techniques
tend
to
rely
more
heavily
on
communications
than
on
modeling.
These
methods
are
applied
in
both
training
and
development.
Lecture
is
a
popular
approach
because
it
offers
relative
economy
and
a
meaningful
organization
of
materials.
However,
participation,
feedback,
transference,
and
repetition
are
often
low.
Feedback
and
participation
can
be
improved
when
discussion
is
permitted
along
with
the
lecture
process.
A
meaningful
organization
of
materials
is
a
potential
strength,
along
with
initial
audience
interest.
Role
playing
and
Behavior
modeling
Role
playing
is
a
device
that
forces
trainees
to
assume
different
identities.
A
male
subordinate
may
play
his
female
manager.
Ideally,
trainees
get
to
see
themselves
as
others
see
them.
The
experience
may
create
greater
empathy
andtolerance
of
individual
diff
erences
and
is
therefore
well
suited
to
diversity
training,
which
aims
to
create
a
work
environment
conducive
to
a
diverse
workforce.
This
technique
is
used
to
change
attitudes,
and
also
help
develop
interpersonal
skills.
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