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9.
Chapter 1
introducing second language acquisition
SLA:
a
term
that
refers
both
to
the
study
of
individuals
and
groups
who
are
learning
a
language
subsequent
to
learning
their
first
one
as
young
children,
and
to
the
process
of
learning that language.
Second
language:
an
officially
or
societally
dominant
language
(not
L1)
needed
for
education, employment or other basic
purposes
Informal L2 learning:
SLA that takes place in naturalistic
contexts
Formal L2 learning:
instructed learning that takes place in
classroom
Linguistic competence:
the underlying knowledge that a
speaker/hearer have of a language.
Chomsky distinguishes this form
linguistic performance.
Linguistic
performance:
the use of language
knowledge in actual production.
First
language/native language/mother tongue (L1):
the language acquired in childhood
Simultaneous
multilingualism:
ability
to
use
one
or
more
languages
that
were
auqired
during early childhood.
Sequential multilingualism:
ability to use one or more languages
that were learned after L1
had already
been established.
1.
What are the
three basic questions in SLA?
(1)
What exactly
does the L2 learner come to know?
(2)
How does the
L2 leaner acquire this knowledge?
(3)
Why are some
learners more successful than others?
2.
Why there are
no simple answers to these questions? (P2)
Chapter 2 foundations of
second language acquisition
1.
Multilingualism:
the ability
to use more than one language.
2.
Bilingualism:
the ability to use two languages.
3.
Monolingualism:
the ability
to use only one language.
4.
Multilingual competence:
“
the compound state of a
mind with two or more
grammars
”
5.
Monolingual
competence:
knowledge of only one
language.
6.
Learner
language:
also
called
interlanguage
which
refers
to
the
intermediate
states
or
interim grammars of
leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.
7.
Positive
transfer:
appropriate
incorporation(
合并，编入
)
of
an
L1
structure
or
rule
in
L2
structure.
8.
Negative
transfer:
inappropriate influence of an
L1 structure or rule in L2 use, also called
interference.
9.
Fossilization:
a
stable
state
in
SLA
where
learners
cease
their
interlanguage
development
before they
reach target norms despite continuing L2 input and
passage of time.
10.
Poverty-of-the-stimulus:
the
argument
that
because
language
input
to
children
is
impoverished(
穷尽的
)
and
they
still
acquire
L1,
there
must
be
an
innate
capacity
for
L1
acquisition.
11.
Innate
capacity:
a
natural
ability,
usually
referring
to
children
’
s
natural
ability
to
learn
or
acquire language.
1.
What is the
nature of language learning?
(1)
Simultaneous/sequential multilingualism
(2)
The role of
natural ability
a)
Humans are born with a natural ability
or innate capacity to learn another language.
b)
As
children mature, so do their language abilities.
c)
Individual variation may occur in
learning; the rate of learning can differ, but
there are
stages everyone goes through.
d)
“
Cut off
point
”
- if the process does
not happen at a young age, you'll never learn the
language.
（关键期假说）
(Critical Period Hypothesis)
(3)
The role of social experience
a)
Children
will
never
acquire
language
unless
that
language
is
used
with
them
and
around them, no matter what is their
language.
b)
As long as children are experiencing
input and social interaction, the rate and
sequence
of development doesn't change.
c)
The only thing that may change is
pronunciation, vocabulary, and social function.
2.
What are some
basic similarities and differences in L1 and L2
learning? (P17
表格
)
(1)
Similarities
between L1 and L2
a)
Development stages
Initial
State - knowledge about language structures and
principles
Intermediate
State - Basic language development
Final State - Outcome of learning
b)
Necessary
conditions: Input
(2)
Differences between L1 and L2
（
P17
表格）
3.
What is
“
the logical problem of
language acquisition
”
?
(1)
Children’s
knowledge
of
language
goes
beyond
what
could
be
learned
from
the
input
they
receive. (Poverty-of-the stimulus)
(2)
Constraints
and principles cannot be learned
(3)
Universal
patterns of development cannot be explained by
language-specific input.
(
如果
说普遍语法存在孩子们脑中，那语言输入起的作用又如何解释呢？
)
4.
Framework for
SLA(P24&P26)
Perspectives, foci, and
frameworks
perspective
Linguistic
foci
Internal
framework
Transformational-
Generative Grammar
Principles and
Parameters Model
Minimalist Program
Functionalism
Neurolinguistics
Information
Processing
Processability
Connectionism
Humanistic
models
Variation Theory
Accomodation Theory
Sociocultural Theory
Ethnography of Communication
external
psychology
Languahe and the brain
Learning processes
Individual difference
Social
Microsocial
Macrosocial
Acculturation Theory
Social
Psychology
5.
Give at least three reasons that many
scientists believe in some innate capacity for
language
(1)
Children
begin
to
learn
their
language
at
the
same
age,
and
in
much
the
same
way
regardless of what the language is.
(2)
Children are
not limited to repeating what they heard; they can
understand and create
novel(
新颖
)
utterance.
(3)
There is a cut-off age for L1
acquisition, beyond which it can never be
completed.
6.
Linguists have taken an internal and
external focus to the study of language
acquisition.
What is the difference
between the two?
The internal focus
seeks to account for
speakers
’
internalized,
underlying knowledge of
language. The
external focus emphasizes language use, including
the functions of language
which are
realized in learners
’
production at different stages of development.
Chapter 3 the
linguistics of second language acquisition
1.
Interference:
also called
negative transfer, which means inappropriate
influence of an L1
structure or rule in
L2 use.
2.
Interlanguage:
also called
learner language, which refers to the intermediate
states or
interim grammars of leaner
language as it moves toward the target L2.
3.
Natural order:
a universal sequence in the grammatical
development of language learners.
4.
Universal
grammar:
a linguistic framework
developed most prominently by Chomsky which
claims that L1 acquisitions can be
accounted for only by innate knowledge that the
human
species is genetically endowed
with. This knowledge includes what all languages
have in
common.
5.
Language
faculty:
term used by Chomsky foe a
“
component of the human
mind
”
that
accounts for
children
’
s innate knowledge
of language.
6.
Principles:
properties(
固有属性
) of all
languages of the world; part of
Chomsky’
s universal
grammar.
7.
Parameters:
limited options
in realization of universal principles which
account for
grammatical variation
between languages of the world. Part of
Chomsky
’
s theory of
universal grammar.
8.
Initial
state:
the starting point of language
acquisition; it is thought to include the
underlying knowledge about language
structures and principles that are in
learners
’
heads
at the very start of L1 or L2
acquisition.
9.
Final state:
the outcome of
L1 and L2 learning, also known as the stable state
of adult
grammar.
10.
Markedness:
a basic for classification of languages
according to whether a specific feature
occurs more frequently than a
contrasting element in the same category, is less
complex
structurally or conceptually,
or is more
“
normal
”
or
“
expected
”
along some dimensions.
11.
Grammaticaliz
ation(
语法化
)
: a
developmental process in which a grammatical
function(such as expression of past
time) is first conveyed by shared extralinguistic
knowledge and inferencing based on the
context of discourse, then by a lexical word(such
as
yesterday), and only later by a
grammatical marker(such as the suffix -ed).
一、
The nature of language
1.
What we learn
in linguistic perspective? What are the
characteristics of language?
Both L1
and L2 learners acquire knowledge at these
different levels:
lexicon(
词汇学
),
phonology(
语音学
),
morphology(
构词法
),
syntax(
句法
). Languages are
systemic,
symbolic and social.
二、
Contrastive
analysis
1.
What
is contrastive analysis?
CA is an
approach to the study of SLA which involves
predicting and explaining learner
problems based on a comparison of L1
and L2 to determine similarities and differences.
2.
What is the
goal of contrastive analysis?(assumptions)
(1)
If L2
acquisition is disturbed by the habits of your
native language, it is reasonable
to
focus on the differences between native and target
language.
(2)
Contrastive analysis had a practical
goal: If you recognize the differences between
your native language and the target
language, you are able to overcome the
linguistic habits of your native
language that interfere with the habits of the
target
language.
3.
What are the
critiques of contrastive analysis?
(1)
The process
of L2 acquisition is not sufficiently described by
the characterization of
errors.
(2)
Errors in L2
acquisition do not only arise from interference.
(3)
The
structural differences between two languages are
not sufficient to predict the
occurrence of errors in L2 acquisition.
三、
Error analysis
1.
What is error
analysis
？
EA is
based on the description and analysis of actual
learner errors in L2, rather than on
idealized linguistic structures
attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2 (as in
CA).
2.
What is the difference between CA and
EA?
Contrastive analysis
Pedagogical orientation
Focus on input, practice, inductive
learning
Errors of transfer
Error analysis
Scientific
orientation
Focus on linguistic and
cognitive processes
Multiple types of
errors
3.
What
are the shortcomings of EA?
(1)
Ambiguity in
classification. (
不知道是具体是哪个原因导致比如时态错误，
可能是
一语影响，也可能是在一语中出现过的
universal developmental process)
(2)
Lack of
positive data.
(
正确的被忽略，只关注错误不能看出学生学到什么
)
(3)
Potential for
avoidance.
(
学生会避免错误，这样错误就不能全部被观察
)
四、
Interlanguage
1.
What are the
characteristics of interlanguage?
(1)
Systematic.
(2)
Dynamic.
(3)
Variable.(
可变性
)
although systematic, differences in context result
in different
patterns of language use.
(4)
Reduced
system, both in form and function.
(
学习者经常会简单化
)
2.
There are
differences between IL development and L1
acquisition, including different
cognitive processes involved:
(1)
Language
transfer from L1 to L2.
(2)
Transfer training.
(3)
Strategies of
second language learning.
(
避免等
)
(4)
Strategies of
second language learning.
(
为方便不要复数等
)
(5)
Overgeneralization of the target
language linguistic material.
3.
The beginning
and the end of IL are defined respectively as
whenever a learner first
attempts to
convey meaning in the L2 and whenever development
“
permanently
”
stops,
but the boundaries are
not entirely clear. Identification of
fossilization is even more
controversial.
五、
Monitor model
(The input hypothesis model)
1.
Which five
hypotheses(
假定
) does the
model consist of? (
课本
P45
！
！
！
)
(1)
Acquisition-
learning hypothesis
(2)
Monitor hypothesis
(3)
Natural order
hypothesis
(4)
Input hypothesis
(5)
Affective
filter hypothesis
2.
What is LAD in this model?
The
LAD
is
made
up
of
the
natural
language
learning
abilities
of
the
human
mind,
totally
available in L1
acquisition, available in L2 acquisition according
to the level of the filter.
But, the
process of learning, unlike the process of
acquisition, uses faculties of mind outside
the LAD.
3.
图示
4.
What are points of the consensus of
early linguistic study of SLA?
(1)
What is being
acquired through a dynamic interlanguage system
(2)
How SLA takes
place involves creative mental processes
(3)
Why some
learners are more successful than others relates
primary to the age.
5.
What is the role of grammar according
to Krashen?
The only instance in which
the teaching of grammar can result in language
acquisition
(and
proficiency)
is
when
the
students
are
interested
in
the
subject
and
the
target
language is used as a medium of
instruction.
六、
1.
2.
3.
Universal
grammar
Differences of linguistic
competence and performance(
见
Chapter1
名词解释
)
What is UG?
(
名词解释
)
UG and L1
acquisition
(1)
What the child acquire is selecting
parametric options.
(2)
Unlike SLA, attitudes, motivations and
social context play no role.
4.
UG and SLA,
there are three important questions
(1)
What is the
initial state of SAL?
Interference(
看参数相同不相同
); no agreement on
access to UG
(2)
What is the nature of IL and how does
it change over time?
定参数的过程
Language faculty;
positive/negative
evidence(
起作用
);
constructionism; fossilization
(3)
What is the
final state in
SLA?(P52
五个达不到的原因
)
七、
Functional
approaches (systemic linguistics)
1.
What are the
four functional approaches?
They
are
Systemic
Linguistics;
Functional
Typology;
Function-to-form
mapping;
Information
organization.
2.
What is Systemic
Linguistics(
系统功能语言学
)?
Developed by Hilliday in the late
1950s, it is a model for analyzing language in
terms of
the interrelated systems of
choices that are available for expressing meaning.
儿童的语言体系是一个意义体系，语言是从意义体系逐渐发展而来，经历过有简单
到复杂的过程。不同有不同意义，根据需要选择最佳的（红绿灯）
。<
/p>
3.
What acquire by language learners is
meaning potential. There are seven functions of
language. (P53)
4.
Systemic
linguists advance four theoretical claims about
language:
a)
That
language use is functional;
b)
That its
function is to make meanings;
c)
That these
meanings are influenced by the social and context
in which they are
exchanged.
d)
That the
process of using language is a semiotic process, a
process of making
meanings by choosing.
5.
All of the
functional approaches discussed here basically
agree on the following:
a)
What is being acquired in SLA is a
system for conveying meaning,
b)
How language
is acquired importantly involves creative learner
involvement in
communication, and
c)
Understanding
of SLA processes is impossible if they are
isolated from circumstances
of use.
Chapter 4 the psychology of
second language acquisition
1.
Lateralization:
different
specification of two halves of the brain. For
example, the left
hemisphere becomes
specialized for most language activity, many
believe during a critical
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