-南音
English Logical Fallacies
Most
academic
writing
tasks
require
us
to
make
an
argument
----
that is, to present reasons for a
particular claim or interpretation
we
are
putting forward. We have been told
that we need to make our arguments
more
logical or stronger. And we may have worried that
we simply are
not
a
logical
person
or
wondered
what
it
means
for
an
argument
to
be
strong.
Learning
to
make
the
best
arguments
we
can
is
an
persistent
process, but it does be possible:
do, with practice! Each argument we
make is composed of premises (this
is
a
term
for
statements
that
express
our
reasons
or
evidence)
that
are
arranged
in
the
right
way
to
support
our
conclusion (the
main
claim
or
interpretation we are
offering). We can make our arguments stronger by
1
,
using
good
premises (ones
we
have
good
reason
to
believe
are
both
true and
related to the issue);
2
, making sure our premises
provide good support for our conclusion;
3
,
checking
that
we
have
addressed
the
most
important
or
related
aspects of the issue
(that is our premises and conclusion focus on what
is
really important to the issue we are
arguing about);
4
, not making claims so
strong or sweeping that we can not really support
them.
It is particularly
easy to slip up and commit a fallacy when we have
strong feelings about our topic ---- if
a conclusion seems obvious to us,
we
are more likely to just assume that it is true and
to be careless with our
evidence.
Fallacies
are
defects
that
weaken
arguments.
By
learning
to
look for them in our own and others'
writing,we can strengthen our ability
to
evaluate
the
arguments
we
make,
read,
and
hear.
It
is
important
to
realize
two
things
about
fallacies:
First,
fallacious
arguments
are
very,
very
common and can be quite persuasive, at least to
the casual reader or
listener.
We
can
find
dozens
of
examples
of
fallacious
reasoning
in
newspapers,
advertisements,
and
other
sources.
Second,
it
is
sometimes
hard to evaluate
whether an argument is fallacious. An argument
might be
very weak, rather weak, very
strong, or rather strong. An argument which
has
several
stages
or
parts
might
have
some
strong
sections
and
some
weak
ones. So what do fallacies look like?
Dicto Simpliciter
Definition:
When
a
premise
is
generally
committed,
the
exception
is
ignored.
Example: Women are
on average not as strong as men and less able to
perform
well
politically.
Therefore,
women
can not pull their
weight in
government work.
Comment: Although it is true that there
are less women work in politics,
but it
does not mean that all women are incompetent in
government work.
Hasty Generalization
Definition: The premise is obviously
not adequate, the user just jumps to
the conclusion.
Example:
McDonald's and KFC offer foods with little
nutrition, and thus
we
cannot
expect
any
fast
food
restaurant
to
provide
us
with
nutritious
foods.
Comment: Two cases are not enough to
launch a general truth.
Post Hoc
Definition: There is no connection
between the cause and the fact.
Example:
Most
young
criminals
watch
violent
movies
before
they
commit
their
crimes;
obviously,
violent
movies
lead
to
juvenile
delinquency.
Comment: A
event happens before B event, while it does not
mean that B
event takes place because
of the occurrence of A event.
Contradictory Premises
Definition: The premise and the
conclusion contradict each other, so there
can be no conclusion.
Example: A society is free and only if
liberty is maximized or people are
required to take responsibility for
their actions.
Comment:
The
premise
of
this
argument
contradict
each
other,
which
result in the false conclusion.