母亲节英文生物学基本名词详细解释(中英文对照)

2021年1月20日发(作者：million是什么意思)

生物学基本名词详细解释（中英文对照）


/english/speciality/


组织相容性

Histocompatibility
字面上讲是指不同组织共存的能力；严格地讲是指所 有移植蛋白的一致性，这是阻止移植和器官排斥的需要。组
织相容性的分子基础是修饰几乎所有人类细胞 表面的一套移植蛋白。这些蛋白是由位于
6
号染色体上的一段称为
主要组织相溶性复合 体基因，
MHC
编码的。这些蛋白高度多态。例如，它们在不同的人中显示差异。尽管很多人会
有一些相同的
MHC
分子，极少数人有完全相同的
MHC
分子。微小 的差别导致这些蛋白质被移植受体的免疫系统识
别为外来的而进行破坏。对成功的移植来说这些蛋白质应 该在供体和受体之间相匹配。双胞胎相配的几率最高，
接下来是兄弟姐妹。在一般人群中只有
1 0
万分之一的比例是
MHC
匹配的，可以允许移植。


Literally, the ability of different tissues to “get along”; strictly, identity in all of the transplantation proteins, which is a
requirement for the prevention of graft or organ rejection. The molecular basis of histocompatibility is a set of
transplantation proteins that decorate the surface of nearly all human cells. These proteins are encoded by genes that
are grouped on a part of chromosome 6 called the major histocompatibility complex, or MHC. These proteins are highly
“polymorphic” i.e., they show variation in different individuals. Although many in
dividuals may share some identical
MHC molecules, a very low number share all the MHC molecules. The consequence of these minor differences is that
these proteins are recognized by the transplant recipient’s immune system as being foreign, and so are targe
ted for
destruction (since the immune system’s job is to eradicate any foreign proteins or cells that invade the body). For
successful transplantation these proteins ideally should be matched between donor and recipient. Twins have the
highest rate of matc
h, followed by siblings. In the general population only 1 in 100,000 individuals is sufficiently “MHC
matched” to another person to allow transplantation.

X
射线结晶学

X-ray Crystallography
阐述蛋白质、
DNA
或其它生物分子的原子水平的 三维结构的技术。
这种方法的运用是基于首先使纯化的生物分子结
晶为有序排列然后用
X
射线分析结晶体。之所以使用
X
射线是因为其波长和原子裂解时的波长一样，所以晶 体作
为分子衍射光栅衍射
X
射线，产生一种可以获取并分析的衍射图形。然后用计算机 重建初始结构。在实际操作中
这一衍射图形被反复地不断升高的分辨率处理，结晶学家不断在建立一个模 型结构并按该模型计算出的衍射图形
与实际观察到的比较。每一次重复都使模型结构与实验结果更加吻合 。当这两者之间的差异可以忽略时，这一衍
射图形便得到求解。最终的模型提供了被研究分子平均时间上 的三维原子水平结构。蛋白靶子的
X
射线结晶体结
构可以识别蛋白质的功能袋。当与自 然或人工配体混合时，可以作为药物设计的有用起始点。蛋白质
X
射线结构
的目录也为 蛋白质结构类型、自然状态下的折叠和域提供了有用信息。有时这被称为结构基因组学。


A technique that allows the elucidation of the three-dimensional structure of proteins, DNA, or other biomolecules at
atomic-level resolution. This is achieved by first crystallizing the purified biomolecule into ordered arrays and then using
X-ray diffraction to analyze the crystals. X-rays are used because they have the same wavelength as the atomic
separations so the crystal acts as a molecular diffraction grating to diffract a beam of X-rays, producing a diffraction
pattern that can be captured and analyzed. A computer is then used to reconstruct the original structure. In practice the
diffraction pattern is iteratively solved at ever-
increasing “shells” of resolution; the crystallographer
alternates between
building a model structure (working in “real” space) and comparing the model’s calculated diffraction pattern with the


observed diffraction pattern (working in “reciprocal” space). Each round of iteration brings the model structure into
better agreement with the experimental data; when the difference between the two is negligible the diffraction pattern
is said to be “solved.” The final model provides a time
-averaged three-dimensional atomic-resolution structure of the
molecule under study. The X-ray crystal structure of a protein target can identify the functional pockets of the protein
and, when complexed with a natural or synthetic ligand, can serve as a useful starting point for rational drug design.
X-ray structures of catalogs of proteins have also provided useful information on the types of protein structures, folds
and domains found in nature; this is sometimes termed structural genomics.

药效基因

Pharmacophore
一个药物分子经过物理或电场作用形成三维功能结构从而引起分 子的药理活动。一般而言，药效基因是指原子和
功能基团的结合，使得药物以特定方式与靶蛋白作用并显 示药物活性。人们已经发展了很多研究药物先导物和其
针对特定靶子的可测量活性的方法，使得研究者能 够从一系列结构活性关系中得到其药效基因。这些方法中最成
熟的是用复杂的统计计算机模型和三维数据 库查询，识别和设计具有相近或相同药效基因的复合物或整个文库。
药效基因的识别不仅在药物识别和设 计中有用，而且对先导物优化药效减少毒性也大有用途。这是因为一旦知道
药效基因，药物化学家就可以 修饰它，在保持药效的基础上减少毒性。


The three-
dimensional “functional shape” formed by the steric (physical) and electric fields of a drug molecule that
cause the molecule’s pharmacological activity. Typically, pharmacophore refers to the combination
of atoms and
functional groups (together with their three- dimensional positions), that together allow a drug to interact with its target
protein in a specific manner and exhibit its pharmacological activity. Numerous approaches for studying drug leads and
their measurable activity against a particular target have been developed, allowing one to infer the pharmacophore
from a series of these structure-activity relationships. The most sophisticated of these approaches use sophisticated
statistical computer modeling and three-dimensional database searching to identify and design compounds or entire
libraries with similar or identical pharmacophores. Identification of a pharmacophore is useful not only in drug
identification and design studies, but also in lead optimization (see leads) for potency and reduction of toxicity. This is
because once a pharmacophore is known, medicinal chemists can modify it to reduce toxicity while maintaining (or
enhancing) potency.

异种移植

Xenograft
将一个物种 的组织移植到另一个物种体内，例如，从猪到人。和同种移植不同的是，异种之间存在很大差异，从
而使 得这种移植成功的可能性很小。负责组织排斥的免役系统将很容易地识别出外来组织并强烈排斥它。既然动
物可以为移植提供无尽的来源，异种移植一直是人们梦寐以求的事。猪虽然看上去和人有着很大的差异，却有着
相似的器官结构，因而成为该领域内研究的焦点；猴子是另一类有吸引力的种群。


A tissue transplant from one species to another, e.g. from pig to human. Because of the greater differences between
species, as opposed to within a species, these transplants have the least chance of working. The immune system, which
is responsible for tissue rejection, will easily recognize the tissue as foreign and will reject it vigorously. Thus xenograft,
or xenotransplantation is a sort of holy grail for transplantation, since animals would provide an endless supply of
organs for transplantation. Pigs, although seemingly very different from humans, have similar organ organization and
so remain a focus for research in this area; monkeys are another attractive group.



大规模筛选

High-throughput Screening
用小型的、自动机技术针对靶蛋白、 细胞或组织筛选大量化合物文库以识别潜在新药。结合基因组学和组合化学，
大规模筛选为药物和生物技 术公司识别潜在新药的能力带来了革命。大规模筛选有赖于对要识别的靶子的数量和
药物相关分析的发展 ，然后可以在大量样本中重复。一般，大规模筛选依赖于
96
孔板，尽管更高密度的形式也是< br>可能的。最近，小型化和微流体方面的进展允许在一个芯片上每天对一个靶子筛选
10
万 个化合物，使得从前不可
想象的大量化合物筛选成为可能。


The use of miniaturized, robotics-based technology to screen large compound libraries against an isolated target protein,
cell or tissue in order to identify binders that may be potential new drugs. In conjunction with genomics (the
identification of large numbers of potential therapeutic targets), and combinatorial chemistry (the production of large
numbers of medicinally relevant compounds), high-throughput screening has revolutionized the capacity of
pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies to identify potential new drugs. High-throughput screening depends on
the development of a quantitative, pharmacologically relevant assay for the identified target, which can then be
reproduced across a large number of samples. Typically, high-throughput screening has relied on 96-well plates as the
standard, although higher-density formats (356, 712) are possible. Recently, advances in miniaturization and
microfluidics have allowed screening of up to 100,000 compounds against a target on a single chip daily, allowing
previously unimaginable amounts of compounds to be screened.

药物遗传学

Pharmacogenomics
药物遗传学是基于人群的 遗传变异研究该人群对药物的遗传反应的分别。人们早已知道人群里的不同人对同一种
药物的反应不同， 这是受药物影响的分子受体的不同或清除药物的代谢酶的差异造成的。药物遗传学是在分子水
平上研究这 些差异的科学。通过对人群中存在的不同的分子受体进行识别和分类，然后系统研究药物对其影响，
人们 有希望预测或抑制药物对不同亚人群的作用。药物遗传学的应用包括减少副作用，定制药物，改善临床实验
以及挽救一些由于对少数人群会产生严重副作用而被禁用的药物。


Pharmacogenomics is the study of the stratification of the pharmacological response to a drug by a population based on
the genetic variation of that population. It has long been known that different individuals in a population respond to the
same drug differently, and that these variations are be due to variations in the molecular receptors being affected by the
drug, or to differences in metabolic enzymes that clear the drug. Pharmacogenomics is the science of studying these
variations at the molecular level. By identifying and classifying all the tolerable variations of a molecular receptor known
to exist in a population, and then performing systematic studies of the effect of the drug on each of the variants, one can
hope to predict or constrain the use of the drug to different subgroups. Applications of pharmacogenomics include
reducing side effects; customized drugs; improved clinical trials; and the rescue of some drugs that have been banned
due to severe side effects in a small percentage of the eligible population.

基因治疗

Gene Therapy
用基因材料进行治疗的技术。这种基 因材料可以是基因，基因替代物或
cDNA
、
RNA
甚至小的基因片段。引入 的遗
传材料可以在几方面有治疗作用：它可以合成一个蛋白质替代缺陷或遗失蛋白，或修正和修饰一项特 定的细胞功
能，或引发免疫反应。在基因治疗方法中，基因材料可以以多种方式引入病人体内。它可以以 基因疫苗的方式注


射，或者将携带治疗基因作为其原有基因的一部分的生物工程病 毒引入体内。使用的病毒可以是腺病毒、
AAV
、反
转录病毒、疱疹病毒。脂质体也可 携带治疗基因到细胞内。

The technology that uses genetic material for therapeutic purposes. This genetic material can be in the form of a gene,
a representative of a gene or cDNA, RNA or even a small fragment of a gene. The introduced genetic material can be
therapeutic in seve
ral ways: It can make a protein that is defective or missing in the patient’s cells (as would be the case
for a genetic disorder), or one which will correct or modify a particular cellular function, or a protein that elicits an
immune response. In gene therapy approaches, the genetic material may be introduced into the patient in several
different ways. It can be directly injected for some applications in a process known as genetic vaccination, or it can be
introduced by using bioengineered viruses that will carry the therapeutic gene as part of their own genetic cargo and
deliver it into the cell. The viruses that are commonly used for this purpose are adenovirus, adeno-associated virus
(AAV), retrovirus, lentivirus and herpes virus. Reagents known as liposomes can also carry therapeutic genes into cells.

载体

Vector
把物质（一般是遗传物质）转入宿主细胞或生物的运载体。一般而言，载体有两 种类型
---
病毒或
DNA
类。
DNA
载
体是可以 自我复制的环状结构，易于携带遗传物质和纯化。用一般的实验室技术将它们转入细胞体内。这些载体
具 有不同的特征，包括质粒、粘粒和酵母人工染色体。经过生物工程处理成无害的组合病毒也可携带遗传物质并在实验室内将其转入细胞或整个宿主生物体，后者即基因治疗的一个例子。


A vehicle that transfers material (typically genetic) into a host cell or organism. Typically, vectors are of two types
–

viral- or DNA-based. DNA vectors are self replicating, circular elements that can be easily manipulated to carry genetic
cargo and are easily purified in bulk; they are transferred into cells by standard laboratory techniques. These vectors
can have different features (such as the size of DNA-insert they can accommodate) and include plasmids, cosmids, and
yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs). Recombinant viruses that have been bioengineered to be harmless can also carry
genetic cargo for transfer into cells in the laboratory, or into an entire host organism, the latter is an example of gene
therapy.

多聚酶链式反应（
PCR
）
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
扩大
DNA
量的技术，其中目标
DNA的两侧序列是知道的。短的
DNA
片段（引物）通过特殊的
TAQ
酶结合 在侧翼序
列上并在两个引物间复制序列。循环升温分离
DNA
双链，降温使引物结合， 再升温使酶能复制
DNA
。这样每一循环
产生双倍
DNA
。
这一反应通常是在一可调控的温箱中或
PCR
仪中进行，
对所有的
DNA进行
30
到
35
个循环扩增。
PCR
十分敏感，可以从 一个
DNA
分子扩增到微克的量。靶子
DNA
可以是任何来源，所以用
PCR
来扩增
DNA
的方法可以
用于研究，克隆和司法签定，它们都可以利 用
PCR
的极度敏感性。


A technique u
sed to “amplify” (or generate large amounts) of DNA for which the “flanking” sequences (those sequences
directly on either side of the target DNA) are known. Short complementary DNA fragments (“primers”), which bind
these flanking sequences are used by a special enzyme (
Taq
polymerase which is active at high temperatures) to copy
the sequence in-between the primers. Cycles of heat to break apart the DNA strands, cooling to allow the primers to
bind, and heating again to allow the enzyme to copy the intervening sequence, lead to a doubling of DNA at each cycle.
The reactions are typically carried out on a regulated heating block, or PCR machine, and consist of 30-35 cycles of
repeated amplification of all the DNA present. PCR is very sensitive, allowing a single molecule of target DNA to be


amplified to microgram amounts of DNA. The target DNA can be of any origin, and so PCR is used to amplify DNA for use
in research, cloning and forensics, each of which takes advantage of PCR’s extreme sensitivity

基因

Gene
是构成遗传的基本单 位；编码蛋白所有信息的
DNA
序列。从结构上来讲，基因包含三个区域：称为启动子的调节< br>区域；与其并列的编码蛋白质的密码子区域；以及
3'
端尾部序列。在哺乳动物细胞里， 启动子是一个包含着许多
蛋白质结合位点的复杂区域，它调节基因的表达。单个基因可以被激活，由这些 控制蛋白决定时间、地点及蛋白
表达量，从而产生蛋白质。这一过程称为基因表达。在人类基因组中，大 约有
10
万个基因。其中一些进化过程相
关联而形成

基因家族
表达相关蛋白。也有基因不再制造蛋白，这些进化中的残余物称为假基因。


The basic unit of heredity; the sequence of DNA that encodes all the information to make a protein. Structurally, a gene
is formed by three regions: a regulatory region called the promoter juxtaposed to the coding region containing the
protein sequence, and
a “3’ tail” sequence. In mammalian cells, the promoter is a complex region containing binding
sites for many proteins that regulate gene expression. A gene may be “activated” or “switched on” to make protein –

this activation is referred to as gene expression - by these proteins which control when, where and how much protein
is expressed from the gene. In the human genome, there are an estimated 100,000 genes. Some of these are
evolutionarily related and form“gene families” that express related proteins. T
here are also genes that no longer make
a protein; these defective remnants of evolution are called pseudogenes.

疫苗

Vaccines
由无害的 多种致病介质如病毒或细菌或来自这些介质的蛋白质组成的生物制品。当注入人体时，介质本身或其蛋
白 质亚基会引发很强的免疫反应从而避免对同种介质的进一步感染。疫苗模仿自然的感染引发强大的免疫反应而不会造成疾病。疫苗中使用的蛋白质通常在致病介质表面找到并可以在实验室生成。完整的细菌或病毒可以通 过
热和辐射处理变得无害，也可以通过生物处理使其活性减弱变成活的无害的介质。这样的例子包括不能 在体温下
生长的流感病毒和在病人体内不能感染神经的小儿麻痹症疫苗。

Biological preparations composed either of a harmless variety of a disease-causing agent such as a virus or bacteria, or
of proteins derived from such an agent. When injected into humans, the agent itself or its protein subunits, will elicit a
strong immune response, which
will be protective against further infection from that agent. The vaccine “mimics” a
natural infection to elicit a strong immune response, but causes no disease. The proteins used in vaccines are usually
found on the surface of the disease-causing agents and can be generated in the laboratory. Intact bacteria or viruses
can be rendered harmless by heat- or radiation-
mediated killing, or can be “attenuated” (inactivated) by
biomanipulation to produce a live but harmless version of the agent. Examples of suc
h “attenuated” or “live vaccines”
include influenza virus that does not grow at body temperature and polio vaccine in which the virus cannot infect
neurons but remains in the gut of the patient.

病原体

Pathogen
任何对身体有害的外来物或生物。一般来说，病原体是微生物，如：细菌、病毒、真菌或寄生虫。每一种 情况中，
感染生物都用寄主的身体来生存和生长，经常集中于一个特定器官。有时这会影响正常的细胞功 能导致疾病。有
些细菌还会分泌对寄主有毒的蛋白质导致轻度反应如腹泻，重则会致命。病原体展现出一 系列特殊的蛋白质，允
许它们感染寄主并在其体内生长；这些蛋白质是治疗的靶子。



Any foreign agent or organism that is harmful to the body. Typically, pathogens are microscopic organisms such as
bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites such as worms. In each case, the infecting organism uses the host body to live and
grow, and is often restricted to a particular organ. Sometimes this affects normal cellular functions, leading to illness.
Some bacteria also secrete proteins that are toxic for the host, leading to mild effects such as diarrhea, or to fatal effects.
Pathogens exhibit a unique set of proteins, which allow them to infect and grow in their hosts; these proteins are the
target of therapeutic intervention.

功能基因组学

Functional Genomics
运用遗传技术，通过识别其在一个或多个生物模型中的作用来认识新发现基因的功能 。功能基因组用功能不明的
分离基因作为起始点，然后选择具有该同源基因的生物模型。这一生物模型可 以是简单的酵母细胞或复杂的线虫
甚至老鼠。基因被选择性的用多种遗传技术灭活，在此生物体上选择性 去除的效果被确定。通过这种方法去除基
因，它对生物功能的贡献就能够被识别。功能基因组在评估和检 测新药时十分有用。在另一种方法中，一整套基
因被系统地灭活，人们就可以检测其对特定细胞功能的影 响。这里，一个新的基因和其功能就同时被识别了。


The use of genetic technology to determine the function of newly discovered genes by determining their role in one or
more model organisms. Functional genomics uses as its starting point the isolated gene whose function is to be
determined, and then selects a model organism in which a homolog of that gene exists. This model organism can be as
simple as a yeast cell or as complex as a nematode worm, fruitfly, or even a mouse. The gene is selectively inactivated
or
determined. By knocking out a gene in this way, its contribution to the function of the organism (and, by implication, its
function in man), can be determined. Functional genomics has proven particularly useful as a means of validating or
testing novel therapeutic targets. In another approach, a whole set of genes may be systematically inactivated and the
effect of this on a particular cellular function examined. Here, a new gene and its function are identified simultaneously.

翻译

Translation 细胞的蛋白质合成系统将
mRNA
的信息转化成蛋白质中的过程。翻译发生于核糖体上，在 那里将
mRNA
的信息转变
为多肽链。一系列转移
RNA
分子将每三 个碱基读成一个密码子，识别出
mRNA
的信息并将氨基酸相应排列起来。并
列而排的 转移
RNA
阅读邻近的密码子，带来氨基酸并将其以共价键连接起来。这一过程持续进行直到多 肽链完成；
这条链然后被释放出来并折叠成有功能的蛋白质。


The conversion of an mRNA transcript (see transcription) into a protein molecule by the cellular protein synthesis
machinery. Translation occurs at a site called the ribosome, which allows the information within the mRNA to be
converted into a polypeptide chain. The code is read, three bases at a time, by a series of transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules,
which recognize the mRNA message and align the appropriate amino acid in place. Juxtaposed tRNAs, reading adjacent
codes, bring together amino acids, which are then covalently joined to together. This process continues until the
polypeptide chain is complete; the chain is then released and folds into a functional protein.

开放阅读框（
ORF
）
Open reading frame
放 阅读框是基因序列的一部分，包含一段可以编码蛋白的碱基序列，不能被终止子打断。当一个新基因被识别，其
DNA
序列被解读，
人们仍旧无法搞清相应的蛋白序列是什麽。
这是因 为在没有其它信息的前提下，
DNA
序列可以


按六种框架阅读和 翻译（每条链三种，对应三种不同的起始密码子）。
ORF
识别包括检测这六个阅读框架并决定 哪
一个包含以启动子和终止子为界限的
DNA
序列而其内部不包含启动子或密码子，符 合这些条件的序列有可能对应
一个真正的单一的基因产物。
ORF
的识别是证明一个新 的
DNA
序列为特定的蛋白质编码基因的部分或全部的先决条
件。


An open reading frame (ORF) is a portion of a gene’s sequence that contains a sequence of bases, uninterrupted by stop
sequences, that could potentially encode a protein. When a new gene is identified and its DNA sequence deciphered, it
is still unclear what its corresponding protein sequence is. This is because, in the absence of any other knowledge, the
DNA sequence can be translated or read in six possible reading frames (three for each strand, corresponding to three
different start positions for the first codon). ORF identification involves scanning each of the six reading frames and
determining which one(s) contains a stretch of DNA sequence bounded by a start and stop codon, yet containing no
start or stop codons within it; a sequence meeting these conditions could correspond to the actual single product of the
gene. The identification of an ORF provides the first evidence that a new sequence of DNA is part or all of a gene
encoding for a particular protein.

酶

Enzyme
在活细胞里催化化学反应的蛋白质。在必要的物理化学反 应里酶是能够加速形成和打断化学连接的蛋白分子。酶
可以是细胞内的，催化细胞内的反应如：新陈代谢 、调节、信号传导或合成过程；或细胞外的，在细胞间或血液
里循环，并在那里催化对于多细胞生物的功 能具有重要作用的反应。酶的催化中心是由一组氨基酸组成，其三维
结构形成活性位点，允许它高效地结 合或修饰底物。酶的作用一般分三步：结合底物；改变底物结构使其便于修
饰；化学反应的完成修饰了底 物并使酶恢复到原来的状态。其它促成催化的因素来自结合水分子，金属离子或其
它因子。许多酶是由几 个基组成，有些具有不同区域形成的结合和催化功能。


A protein that catalyzes chemical reactions in living cells. Enzymes are protein molecules whose function it is to speed
the making and breaking of chemical bonds required for essential physiochemical reactions. Enzymes are either
intracellular, catalyzing reactions within the cell such as those involved in the metabolic, regulatory, signaling, or
synthesis pathways; or extracellular, circulating in the spaces between cells or in the bloodstream, where they catalyze
reactions critical to the functioning of a multicellular organism. The catalytic center of an enzyme is composed of a set
of amino acids whose three-
dimensional arrangement forms the “active
-
site” that allows them to efficiently bind and
modify the substrate. Enzymes typically function in a three-step process: binding of the substrate (the molecule to
which a chemical bond will either be added or cleaved); straining of the substrate into a conformation where it is
susceptible to modification, (called the enzyme-substrate complex, in which the enzyme and substrate are joined by a
transient covalent attachment); completion of the chemical reaction modifies the substrate and returns the enzyme to
its initial state. Additional contributions to catalysis can come from bound water molecules, metal ions, or other factors.
Many enzymes are composed of several subunits (domains), and some have binding (recognition) and catalytic
(effector) functions encoded by different domains.

转基因动物

Transgenic Animals
一种生物（通常是老鼠），将外来基因转入其体内成为其基因组的一部分。引入的基因先被分离出来并设 计使其
携带适当片段。然后将这段基因注入受精卵，方法如下：对一只雌老鼠注射激素使其产生大量卵； 让一只雄老鼠
与其交配使部分卵受精；将这些卵收集起来，在其卵裂前注入外来基因物质。这些卵被移植 入另一个雌性体内，


在那里它们发育成型。在某些卵里基因物质在随意位点与染色 体整合而成为老鼠细胞的遗传物质。由这种卵发育
成的动物将携带该基因从而成为转基因动物。转基因动 物对于描述新发现基因的功能和在大动物体内产生有益蛋
白质十分有用。


An organism (typically a mouse) that is engineered to carry a foreign gene, or transgene of choice, as part of its own
genetic material. The gene to be introduced is first isolated and engineered (using the techniques of genetic engineering)
to carry appropriate elements. The transgene of choice is then injected into a fertilized egg, which is obtained as follows;
A female mouse is injected with several hormones to cause it to produce numerous eggs; The female is then mated with
a male so that some of the eggs are fertilized; the eggs are collected before they divide and are injected with the foreign
genetic material. These eggs are then transplanted back into another (recipient) female, in which they can develop to
term. In some of the eggs, the genetic material integrates at a random site on a chromosome and so becomes part of
the mouse cell’s genetic material. The animal resulting from that egg will therefore carry that gene and so is a
transgenic animal. Trangenic animals are very useful for delineating the function of newly discovered genes as well as
for producing useful proteins in large animals (e.g. the production of alpha anti-
trypsin in goat’s milk).

癌基因

Oncogene
其蛋 白产品造成不可控的细胞生长（癌症）的基因。正常细胞在细胞周期中分裂的过程是由很多基因控制的。癌
基因有时产生于这些基因中的一个或多个突变。突变产生异常蛋白，不能行使正常功能调节细胞生长，或引发不
可控细胞生长。癌基因也会存在于病毒，由病毒进入宿主细胞引发癌症，这些往往是宿主细胞的蛋白突变 型


A gene whose protein product causes uncontrolled cell growth (cancer). Normal cells divide under a very specific
program called the cell cycle that is controlled by many genes. Oncogenes are sometimes produced as a result of a
mutation in one or more of these genes. The mutation results in a malfunctional protein, which cannot perform its
normal task to regulate cell growth or actually induces uncontrolled cell growth. Oncogenes are also found in viruses
that introduce them into the host cells they infect to induce cancer; these are often mutant versions of proteins present
in host cells.

电泳

Electrophoresis 用电场分离带电荷的生物分子如：
DNA
、
RNA
和蛋白质。由于结构内 存在大量磷酸基团
DNA
和
RNA
带负电荷。蛋白
质随着
P H
值不同携带不同电荷，但当某些化学试剂存在时会带负电荷。在凝胶电泳过程中，生物分子被注入由琼
脂糖等惰性物质构成的固体胶块的孔里。当胶被放入溶液里并加上电场，生物分子根据大小相对于携带电 量的比
例移动和分离。生物分子可以被染色以便观察、分离和纯化，用于接下来的分析。电泳可用于从混 合物中分离纯
化生物分子或分析生物分子。


The use of electrical fields to separate charged biomolecules such as DNA, RNA and proteins. DNA and RNA carry a net
negative charge because of the numerous phosphate groups in their structure. Proteins carry a charge that changes
with pH, but becomes negative in the presen
ce of certain chemical detergents. In the process of “gel electrophoresis,”
these biomolecules are put into wells of a solid matrix typically made of an inert substance such as agarose. When this
gel is placed into a bath and an electrical charge applied across the gel, the biomolecules migrate and separate
according to size in proportion to the amount of charge they carry. The biomolecules can be stained for viewing and


isolated and purified from the gels for further analysis. Electrophoresis can be used to isolate pure biomolecules from a
mixture or to analyze biomolecules (such as for DNA sequencing).

新化学个体（
NCEs
）

New Chemical Entity
药物开发公司或团体引入临床前检测的新的待选药 物分子。尽管通常制药工业只在决定
NCEs
产生的数量时，只对
小有机分子中（传统 药物）计数，
NCEs
也可以包括基因或基因片段，蛋白或多肽，或者小分子。制药工业每年产
生的
NCEs
的数量对公司保持发展的能力致关重要。最近人们意识到
NCE
短缺，希望基因组学、组合化学和高效筛
选这些新技术的应用能改变这一不平衡。

New candidate drug molecules that are advanced into preclinical testing by the research arm of a drug discovery
company or organization. NCEs may include genes or gene fragments, proteins or peptides, or small molecules,
although typically the pharmaceutical industry has counted only small organic molecule
s (“classical” drugs) in their
determination of the number of NCEs generated. The number of NCEs created by the pharmaceutical industry each year
is critical to the ability of companies to maintain growth. An NCE deficit has recently been identified, and it is hoped that
the application of new technologies such as genomics, combinatorial chemistry and high-throughput screening will
redress the balance.

药物

Drug
影响生物过程的任何分子。更严格地说是药学活性可以和化学结构相关联的分子。历史上，药物是从自然 发生的
真菌、植物和其它动植物中识别并提取的，对于特定疾病的导靶作用几乎没什麽方向性。然而逐渐 地，现代药物
是通过准确导向分子水平的特定疾病状态发现的，药物可以是基因、基因的蛋白产物（如重 组胰岛素或促红细胞
生成素）或设计制造及修饰的小分子以调节特殊的疾病过程。无论新药开发过程如何 ，所有的药物都经过一个漫
长的临床前和临床检验；第一个临床前检验是测试药物在动物模型中的存活力 和药用（通常是鼠或更高级的灵长
类动物）；第二次检验测试在人体中的安全性、药效和剂量。这些检验 通过后（通常需要
3-5
年，花费
5
千万到
2
亿美金）最终 要向本国政府授权机构提出申请（在美国是食品药物管理委员会）。只有当该机构检验了药物测试
的数据 并认为它具有良好的治疗效果而没有严重的副作用，这种药物才被允许制造和销售。


Any molecule that affects a biological process. More strictly, a molecule whose pharmacological activity can be
correlated with its chemical structure. Historically, drugs were identified and extracted from naturally occurring fungi,
plants, and other flora and fauna, with little direction given to the targeting of a particular disease. Increasingly,
however, modern drugs are being discovered through the precise targeting of a particular disease state dissected at the
molecular level, and the drugs may be genes, the protein products of genes (such as recombinant insulin or
erythropoetin), or small molecules created by design or diversity to modulate a specific disease process. Irrespective of
the process of novel drug discovery, all drugs must undergo a lengthy process of preclinical and clinical review; the first
preclinical review tests the viability and usefulness of the drug in model organisms (usually mice, rats or higher
primates); and the second review (clinical trials, split into four phases) tests the safety, efficacy and dosage of the drug
in humans. The culmination of these reviews (which typically take 3-5 years and can cost from $$50-$$200 million) is a
submission to the issuing authority of the host country’s gove
rnment (in the U.S, Food and Drug Administration.). Only
once this authority has reviewed the data on the drug and agreed that it offers therapeutic benefit without serious side
effects is the drug approved for manufacture and sale.

组织工程

Tissue Engineering


结合细胞遗传工程和化学工程以创造器官和组织如：皮 肤、骨头、心脏瓣膜和软骨关节的技术。例如，骨生长因
子或干细胞可以在孔状物质中生长，产生颌或四 肢。在另一个例子中，可以制造新的微小器官；从猪的身上纯化
出产生胰岛素的胰岛细胞装入用特殊膜做 成的胶囊然后送到糖尿病患者的腹部。这些细胞受到合成膜的保护而不
会被免疫系统拒绝，但同时又可以 在生理状态下释放胰岛素。同样肝细胞可以装入胶囊产生小的肝。最后，取代
损坏软骨关节或可导入虚弱 组织壁的合成物质也正在开发中。


Technology combining genetic engineering of cells with chemical engineering to create artificial organs and tissues such
as skin, bone, heart valves, and cartilage for joints. For example, bone growth factors or stem cells can be grown within
a porous material (cut to shape) to create new jaws or limbs. In a second example, new miniorgans can be created; Islet
cells that produce insulin have been purified from pigs and encapsulated in a special membrane before introduction into
the abdomen of diabetic patients. These cells are protected from immune rejection by the synthetic membrane, but can
release insulin in a physiological manner. Similarly, liver cells can be encapsulated to generate mini-livers. Finally,
synthetic materials that can replace damaged cartilage in joints or that can be introduced into weakened tissue walls are
also under development.

突变

Mutation
任何有潜在 性的会导致一个或更多基因的功能变化的
DNA
的改变。突变可以是
DNA
的 单个碱基变化（点突变）或
一个基因中的一对碱基对丢失（缺失突变），或染色体的一段移位从而影响很 多基因。突变可以是由辐射、化学
作用、外部病原体（如：病毒）或细胞分裂时基因组复制错误造成。突 变会影响基因调节和表达或造成蛋白质本
身变化从而产生无功能蛋白或异常蛋白。有些
DNA< br>的变化是自然发生的不会产生有害影响；这些在一个群体中的
变化被称为多态性。


Any alteration to DNA that can potentially result in a change in the function of one or more genes. Mutations can be a
change in a single base of DNA (point mutation) or a loss of base pairs (deletion) affecting a single gene, or a movement
of chromosomal regions (translocation) affecting many genes. Mutations can be induced by radiation, chemical
treatment, foreign pathogens (e.g. viruses), or due to errors that occur during replication of the genome each time a cell
divides. Mutations can affect gene regulation and expression or can cause a change in the protein itself that results in
a non-functional protein (e.g. the CFTR protein defective in cystic fibrosis) or one with abnormal activity (e.g. the p53
cancer-causing protein). Some changes in DNA occur naturally and lead to no harmful effects; these changes in a
population are called polymorphisms.

DNA
（脱氧核糖核酸）
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
在所有生物体中构成基本遗传物质的化合物。从结构上讲，
DNA
是由两条链相互缠绕 构成弹簧状结构称为双螺旋。
每条链的主干是由脱氧核糖分子连接磷酸残基形成，连在主干上的是称为碱 基的化学结构，它们从主干伸向螺旋
结构的中央，有
4
种类型
---
腺嘌呤、胞嘧啶、鸟嘌呤和胸腺嘧啶（表示为
A
、
C
、
G
、
T
）。在
DNA
中
C
只能和
G
通过氢键连 接，
A
只能和
T
连接，
通过所谓氢键发生的这些作用将两条链连在一 起。
每条
DNA
链的主干上都有一系
列
G
、
A、
T
、
C
。正是这些碱基序列构成密码并被细胞翻译成一个新的蛋白。另 一条链（互补链或反义链）的序列
总是与第一条链相匹配，即
C
与
G
，
A
与
T
，反过来也一样。

The chemical that forms the basis of the genetic material in virtually all living organisms. Structurally, DNA is composed
of two strands that intertwine to form a spring-like structure called the double helix. Each strand is formed by a