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Introduction: Brain and
language
Cortex:
the surface
of the brain, often called gray
matter,
consisting of
billions of neurons. It
is the decision-making organ of the body.
Cerebral
hemispheres:
the
brain
is
composed
of
cerebral
hemisphere,
one on the right
and one on the left, joined by the corpus
callosum.
Corpus
callosum:
a
network
of
more
than
200
million
fibers
which
permits the left and right hemisphere
to communicate.
1. Aphasia
:
is the neurological term for any language disorder
that results
from brain damage caused
by disease or trauma
（失语症）
Broca’s
aphasia:
labored
speech,
producing
agrammatic
sentences,
absence
of
functional
words,
inflection
omission,
having
difficulty
in
understanding information
from syntactic structures
Wernicke’s
aphasia:
produce
fluent
speech
with
good
intonation
and
may
largely
adhere
to
the
rules
of
syntax,
however
being
semantically
incoherent,
having difficulty in naming objects.
2.
Dyslexics
: is characterized by
difficulty with learning to read fluently
and
with
accurate
comprehension
despite
normal
intelligence,
Word
substitution,
Function
word
omission,
both
the
brain
and
language
are
structured in a complex, modular
fashion.
论证：
The
language
faculty
is
an
autonomous,
genetically
determined
module of the a with different kinds of
linguistic impairment
supports the
hypothesis that the mental grammar, like the brain
itself, is
1
not an undifferentiated system, but
rather consists of distinct components
or modules with different functions.
3. Split brain
shows that
the two hemispheres appear to be independent,
and messages sent to the brain result
in different responses, depending on
which side receives the message.
?
Information of
language can not be transferred to right
hemisphere
?
Different hemisphere has different jobs
?
Have different
visual fields
4. SLI: specific language
impairment
?
Only
linguistic ability is affected, and often only
specific aspects of
grammar are
impaired
?
the
different components of language (phonology,
syntax, lexicon)
can be selectively
impaired or spared
5.
Savant
on
language:
linguistic
ability
derives
from
general
intelligence
because
these
two
individuals
(and
others
like
them)
developed language despite other
pervasive intellectual deficits.
6.
The
critical-age
hypothesis
assumes
that
language
is
biologically
based
and
that
the
ability
to
learn
a
native
language
develops
within
a
fixed period, from birth to middle
childhood. During this
critical
period
,
language
acquisition
proceeds
easily,
swiftly,
and
without
external
intervention. After
this period, the acquisition of grammar is
difficult and,
for most individuals,
never fully achieved.
2
Morphology: the words of language
1.
Morpheme
：
is
the
linguistic
term
for
the
most
elemental
unit
of
grammatical form.
2.
linguistic sign:
A
morpheme
—
the minimal
linguistic unit
—
is thus an
arbitrary union of a sound and a
meaning (or grammatical function) that
cannot be further analyzed.
3. Root:
Morphologically
complex words consist of a morpheme
root
and
one or
more affixes. A root may or may not stand alone as
a word. The
root constitutes the core
of the word and carries the major components of
its meaning.
4.
Stem:
When
a
root
morpheme
is
combined
with
an
affix,
it
forms
a
stem.
5. Base:
Linguists sometimes
use the word
base
to mean
any root or stem
to which an affix is
attached. Base can be a root or stem.
Ⅰ
.
Classification
of Morphemes
：
Free vs. bound
morphemes.
Free morphemes:
may constitute words by themselves.
Free morpheme
can stand alone as a
word.
bound morphemes
are
other morphemes like
–
ness,
-ly, pre- are never
words
by
themselves
but
are
always
parts
of
words.
Bound
morpheme
must
be
attached
to
a
base
morpheme.
bound
morpheme:
affix,
bound
root.
3
Affix:
Prefix,
Suffix, Infix, Circumfix, Derivational affixes.
Infixes
：
morphemes
that
are
inserted
into
other
morphemes.
-um-in
Bontonc, kilad,kumilad as
Circumfixes:
morphemes
that
are
attached
to
a
base
morpheme
both
initially
and
finally..
In
Chickasaw,
the
negative
is
formed
with
both
a
prefix ik- and the suffix
-+o in Chickasaw, palli is
Ⅱ
.
Rules of Word F
ormation
；
Derivation
，
Inflection
，
compound
tion:
When certain bound morphemes are added to a base,
a new
word
with
a
new
meaning
is
form
that
results
from
the
addition of a derivational morpheme is
called a derived derived
word
may
also
be
of
a
different
grammatical
class
than
the
original
mes it changes its
pronunciation.e.g.-ish,-er,-ly,-ship,re-,un-.
2.
Inflection
:
bound
morphemes
which
have
a
strictly
grammatical
function, mark properties such as
tense, number, tions never
change the
grammatical category of the stems. E.g. -s,- ed,
-ing, -en, -s,-
's, -er, -est.
base+affix -waits
Internal change:
ablaut(
元音交替）
and
umlaut(
元音变音
) in English.
~sang~sung; foot~feet
Suppetion
Redupl
ication(
红红火火
)
Tone placement
4
3.
compound
words
:
Two
or
more
words
may
be
joined
to
form
new,
such
as
steamboat,
airplane,redhead,
blackboard,
redneck,
turncoat,
highbrow.
Head:
the
morpheme
that
determines
the
category
of
entire
word.
In
English, the rightmost word in a
compound is the head of the compound.
4. Back formation:
a process
that creates a new word by removing a real
or
supposed
affix
from
another
word.
resurrection→
resurrect
donation
→ donate peddler →peddle
editor → edit
5.
Cliticization:
one
word
is
attached
to
the
other
for
phonological
reasons.
E.g.
Jean
t’aime.
(French)
Jean
likes
you.
th’
angel
(old
English) the angel
6.
Conversion/
Zero
Derivation
implant,
import,
record,
present,
contest
?
Clipping: a polysyllabic word is
shortened by deleting one or more
syllables, lab, doc, flu, zoo.
?
Blends: words
are created from non-morphemic parts of two words.
smog: smoke fog, bit: binary digit
7.
Acronyms:
taking
initial
letters
of
words
or
phases
as
a
word,
5
WTO,NASA.
8. Onomatopoeia:
words whose
pronunciation suggests the meaning e.g:
meow,bang.
9.
Coinage:
boycott, watt, google
Ⅲ
.
Morphological
analysis
to
ask
native
speakers
how
they
say
various
words-
to
collect
data;
to
look
for
recurring
forms;
To
classify
the
morphemes;
To
expose
the
relation among morphemes; To formulate
morphological rules
Syntax
–
the
sentence patterns of Language
：
The part of
grammar that represents a speaker’s knowledge of
sentences and their structures is
called syntax.
2. Syntactic
categories
：
A family of
expressions that can substitute for
one
another
without
loss
of
grammaticality,
including
both
phrasal
categories and lexical categories.
3. Phrasal categories
: NP,
VP, Adj P , PP (prepositional phrase), and Adv
P (adverbial).
4. Lexical
categories
: N, V
, A, Adv
5.
Functional
categories
:
determiner,
demonstratives,
auxiliary,
modals,etc.
6.
phrase
structure
tree
:
A
tree
diagram
with
syntactic
category
information
(constituent structure tree).PS trees represent
three aspects of
6
a
speaker’s
syntactic
knowledge:
The
linear
order
of
the
words
in
the
sentence;
The
identification
of
the
syntactic
categories
of
words
and
groups
of words; The hierarchical structure of the
syntactic categories.
7.
d-structures:
the
basic
structures
of
the
sentences
is
called
deep
structures.
ural
dependency
：
The
transformation
rules
are
structural
dependency, which acts on phrase
structures without paying attention to
the particular words that the
structures contain.
e.g.1)PP preposing
rule. The boy ran up bill.
2)the omission of that in
subject position. That you know bothers me.
3)Move
Aux
rule:
Move the
aux dominated by
the
root
S.
The
boy
who is
sleeping was dreaming, Was the boy who is sleeping
dreaming. Is
the boy who sleeping was
dreaming?(
╳
)
Ⅰ
.Transformational Rules
Some
sentences
may
have
a
structural
difference
that
corresponds
in
a
systematic
way to a meaning difference.
1. Move
Aux rule
The boy is sleeping.
Is the boy sleeping?
→左
d
右
s
7
It
includes other transformational sentences such as
active-passive, there
sentences and PP
preposing.
-movement
——
moves
the wh phrase to C
The dependency
between the wh phrase and the missing constituent
can
be explained if it is assumed that
in each case the wh phrase originated in
the position of the gap in D-structure.
9.
Principle and Parameter
UG is composed
of principle and parameter. The principles
specifies that
syntactic
rules
are
structure
dependent
and
that
the
landing
site
of
movement rules. The parameters
specified the variation, such as the order
of heads and complements and the
variations on movement rules. A child
acquiring a language must fix the
parameters of UG for that language.
8
Semantics: the meaning of language
ics
：
The study of
the linguistic meaning of morphemes, words,
phrases, and sentences
conditional semantics:
It is a
systematic way to account for the
ability
to
determine
whether
a
sentence
is
true
or
false,
when
one
sentence
implies the truth or falsehood of another, or
whether a sentence
has multiple
meanings.
3.
Entailment:
when
the
truth
of
one
sentence
guarantees
the
truth
of
another
sentence,
there
is
a
relation
of
entailment.e.g.
Jack
swims
beautifully. entails Jack swims.
4. Tautology:
A restricted
number of sentences are indeed true regardless
of the circumstances.e.g. A person who
is single is not married./ Circles
are
round.
5.
Contradiction:
the
sentence
that
is
always
false.
A
bachelor
is
married./Circles are square.
6.
paradox:
A paradox is a figure of speech
consisting of a statement or
proposition which on the face of it
seems self-contradictory, but which on
further thinking, may prove to be true,
well-founded, and even to contain
a
succinct
point.e.g.
More
haste,
less
speed./If
we
want
peace,
be
prepared for war.
7. Metaphor:
They are sentences that appear to be
anomalous(
不恰当的
),
but
to
which
a
meaningful
concept
can
be
attached,such
as
Time
is
9
money.
8.
Idioms:
They
are
fixed
expressions
whose
meaning
is
not
compositional
but
must
be
learned
as
a
whole
unit,
such
as
It's
raining
cats and dogs means it's raining
heavily.
1.
Synonyms
are
words
or
expressions
that
have
the
same
meaning
in
some
or all contexts.
2.
Words
that
are
opposite
in
meaning
are
antonyms.
For
example,
complementary
pair
s
are
words
like
alive/dead,awake/asleep.
Gradable
pairs
refer
to
the
words
without
an
absolute
scale,
such
as
big/small,
hot/cold.
Relational
opposites
are
words
which
display
symmetry
in
their
meaning,
such
as
teacher/pupils,
buy/sell.
Auto-antonyms
are those
words which are their own antonyms.e.g. dust
3.
Homonyms
are
words
that
have
different
meanings
but
are
pronounced the same, such as bear and
bare.
argument
structure
of
a
verb
is
part
of
its
meaning
and
is
included
in
its
lexical
entry.
Verbs
have
various
Argument
Structures,
which
describe
the
NPs
that
may
occur
with
particular
verbs.
sitive
verbs
have
one
argument:
the
subject;
transitive
verbs
have two arguments:
the subject and direct object; ditransitive verbs
have
three arguments: the subject,
direct object, and indirect object.
10.
Thematic role
assignment, or
theta
assignment
: the role of theme is
10
assigned to the arguments by
uniformity of theta assignment, a
principle of Universal Grammar,
dictates that the various thematic roles
are always in their proper structural
place in deep structure.
e.g.
d-structure_was bitten the stick by the
dog.s-structure the stick was
bitten
_by the dog.
11.
Maxims
of
Conversation:
speakers
of
all
languages
adhere
to
various
cooperative principles for communicating sincerely
called Grice’s
Maxims
.
Phonetics: the sound of languages
1. Phonetics:
the sound of
languages.
2.
IPA:
In
1888
members
of
the
International
Phonetic
Association
developed
a
phonetic
alphabet
to
symbolize
the
sounds
of
all
inventors
of
this
International
Phonetic
Alphabet,
knew
that a phonetic
alphabet should include just enough symbols to
represent
the
fundamental
sounds
of
all
ic
symbols
are
written
in
square brackets [ ] to distinguish them from
ordinary letters.
3. Manner of
Articulation:
1)V
oiced and
V
oiceless Sounds; Sounds are
voiceless
when
the
vocal
cords
are
apart
and
not
vibrating.
V
oiceless
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