-
1. Leech
’
s 7 types of
meanings
(1).
conceptual
meaning
(logical
meaning,
cognitive
meaning,
or
denotative meaning,
外延意义
)
It
is
denotative
in
that
it
is
concerned
with
the
relationship
between
a
word
and
the
thing
it
denotes,
or
refers
to.
Denotative
meaning
is
the
objective
reflection of world.
(2). Connotative
meaning
（内涵意义）
Connotative
meaning
is
what
is
communicated
by
virtual
of
what
language refers to. It refers to the
emotional association which a word or
a
phrase suggests in one
’
s
mind.
The characteristics:
A.
in
cannot
stand
by
itself
and
is
always
dependent
on
denotative
meaning
B.
connotations
may
be
different
according
to
different
person,
age,
society, country or
time.
C.
In
different
languages,
some
words
may
have
the
same
connotative
meaning.
D.
Connotation is
unstable.
(3) social or stylistic
meaning
Social meaning is the meaning
that a piece of language conveys about the
social circumstances of its use.
(4) affective meaning
Affective
meaning
is
connected
with
the
expression
of
feelings
and
attitudes of the speaker or writer.
(5) reflected meaning
What
is
communicated
through
association
with
another
sense
of
the
same expression is called reflected
meaning, like euphemistic expression.
(6) collocative
meaning
（组合意义，
like
handsome
woman:
仪态端庄）
Collocative
meaning
is
what
is
communicated
through
association
with
words which tend to occur in the
environment of another word.
(7)
thematic meaning
(
主题意义，强调句子的组织和语序
)
Thematic
meaning
is
what
communicated
by
the
way
in
which
the
message
is organized in terms of order and emphasis.
2. Referential meaning
The
theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a
word to the thing it
refers to, or
stands for, is known as the referential theory.
Semantic triangle: word (concept) thing
4 ways to explain a word, like desk
A. by pointing to a desk and saying
this is the desk
B. by describing its
shape and feature or function
C.
paraphrase
D. translation <
/p>
Sense(
涵义
)----refer
ence
（指称）
connotat
ion(
内涵
)----denotation(
外延
)
（
but not
every word has a reference, like god,
ghost
）
3.
(1)synonymy (strict synonymy and loose synonymy)
Strict synonymy refers to the situation
in which two synonymous words
can be
interchangeable in all
possible contexts of use.
Loose
synonymy
or
near
synonymy
may
be
substitutable
in
particular
contexts, but not substitutable across
a range of contexts.
(2) antonymy
G: gradable
CV:
converse
CP: conplementary
(3)
hyponymy(
上下位关系
)
4. (1) A proposition is what is
expressed by a declarative sentence when
that sentence is uttered to make a
statement.
Logic connectives and
symbols
One-place connective:
negation
～
two-place
connective:
conjunction
∧
disjunction
∨
implication
→
equivalence
←→
argument(
主目
)
and
predicate(
谓词
)
in
Socrates
in
a
man
are
Socrates
and man.
(2) universal
quantifiers(
全称量词
)
existential
quantifier(
存在量词
)
5.
Cognitive
linguistics
is
a
newly
established
approach
to
the
study
of
language
that
emerged
in
the
1970s
as
a
reaction
against
the
dominant
generative
paradigm
which
pursues
an
autonomous
view
of
language.
Cognitive linguistics is based on human
experiences of the world and the
way
they perceive and conceptualize the world.
Construal
is
the
ability
to
conceive
and
portray
the
same
situation
in
alternate
ways
through
specificity,
different
mental
scanning,
directionality,
vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc.
Construal
operations
are
conceptualizing
processes
used
in
language
process by human
beings. (phycologically)
Image
schema
is
a
recurring
,
dynamic
pattern
of
our
perceptual
interactions and motor programs that
gives coherence and structure to our
experience.
(a
center-periphery
schema,
a
containment
schema,
a
cycle
schema,
a
force
schema,
a
link
schema,
a
part-
whole
schema,
a
path
schema, a scale schema,
a verticality schema)
Metaphor
involves
the
comparison
of
two
concepts
in
that
one
is
constructed in terms of the other.
Target domain is the experience being
described by the metaphor.
A
source
domain
is
the
means
that
we
use
in
order
to
describe
the
experience.
Ontological
metaphor
means
that
human
experiences
with
physical
objects provide the
basis for ways of viewing events, activities,
emotions,
ideas, etc.
Structural metaphor plays the most
important role because it allows us to
go
beyond
orientation
and
referring
and
gives
us
the
possibility
to
structure one concept according to
another.
Orientational metaphor gives a
concept a spatial orientation.
6. It is self-evident that language
learning can take place when the learner
has enough access to input in the
target language. The input may come in
written
or
spoken
form.
Ideally,
materials
at
all
levels
should
provede
frequent exposure to
authentic input which is rich and varied.
According to
Krashen
’
s input hypothesis,
learners acquire language as a
result
of comprehending input addressed to them. (i+1
principle)