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Applied
linguistics
Chapter 11 Linguistics and
Language Teaching
?
Theoretical views of language
explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and
methods adopted in language teaching.
?
Linguistics, as
the science of language, should be of fundamental
importance for
teachers of language.
?
According to Jo
McDonough, a teacher who is able to explain some
linguistic features
would have a
stronger position than one who handles the
argument by using authority
–
―it‘s like
that‖, ―it‘s an exception‖, or ―it‘s less
formal‖.
1. Linguistics and
language learning
?
Many language
learning theories are proposed based on certain
linguistic theories.
?
In fact,
knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of
understanding what language
learners
can learn, how they actually learn and what they
learn ultimately.
?
As Rod Ellis
points out, ―whereas much of the earlier work
focused on the linguistic and,
in
particular, the grammatical-properties of learner
language and was psycholinguistic in
orientation, later work has also
attended to the pragmatic aspects of learner
language and,
increasingly, has adopted
a sociolinguistic perspective.
?
Although
certain language learners (e.g., advanced learners
and students majoring a
foreign
language) certainly benefit from a knowledge of
linguistics, it is not sensible to
recommend the majority of language
learners to study linguistics while they are still
struggling with the task of learning
the language itself.
1.1
Grammar
?
As a
compromise between the
―
purely
form-
focused approaches‖ and the
―pur
ely
meaning-
focused‖
approaches
, a recent movement called
focus on form seems to take
a more
balanced view on the role of grammar in language
learning.
Focus on Form
?
Although
language learning should generally be meaning-
focused and
communication-oriented, it
is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form
occasionally.
?
Focus on form often consists of an
occasional shift of attention to linguistic code
features
—
by the
teacher and/or one or more
students
—
triggered by
perceived problems
with comprehension
or production.
Universal
Grammar
?
Two
variables concerning the amenability of language
elements to focus on form are the
relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and
the complexity of language structures.
?
According to
the advocates of focus on form, if an L2 structure
is part of UG, the
amenability is high;
otherwise, the amenability is low.
?
The problem is
that no one knows for sure what exactly is part of
UG. It is here that the
study of
linguistics comes into play.
?
The study of
UG, which is often considered as the theory for
the sake of theory, is now
needed in
language learning research in the most practical
sense.
?
The study of UG has attracted
considerable attention from many second language
acquisition researchers because
knowledge of linguistic universals may help to
shape L2
acquisition in a number of
ways.
?
For example, it can provide
explanations for developmental sequences and
language
transfer.
Structural complexity
?
It can be
assumed that less complex structures have higher
amenability, but complexity is
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hard to define.
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Formally simple structures can be
functionally complex and formally complex items
are
not necessarily functionally
complex.
?
Again we resort to linguistics in order
to have a better understanding of the complexity
of
language structures.
Grammar-based teaching
?
Grammar-
translation method
?
Audiolingual method
?
Situational
language teaching
1.2 Input
?
Language
learning can take place when the learner has
enough access to input in the
target
language.
?
This input may come in written or
spoken form.
?
In the case of spoken input, it may
occur in the context of interaction or in the
context of
non-reciprocal discourse .
?
Views diverge greatly as to what kind
of input should be provided for language learners.
?
Authentic input
?
Comprehensible
input (Krashen): i+1
?
Premodified input
?
Interactively
modified input: tends to do a better job
Input-based teaching
?
Direct method
?
Natural
approach
?
Total
physical response
?
Communicative approach
?
Community
language learning (CLL)
?
Suggestopedia
?
Silent way
Suggestopedia:
Learn While You Sleep!
?
The
Bulgarian physician Georgi Lozanov devised a
language learning method called
Suggestopedia.
Caleb Gattegno
’
s
Silent Way
?
This
is a chart containing a certain number of
different coloured rectangles; each colour
corresponds to a sound in the language.
?
The
Fidel is a set of charts presenting all the
possible spellings of each sound of the
language.
?
One of the 12 word charts on which the
functional words of the language are printed in
color.
/silentway/rods/
1.3
Interlanguage
—
output
?
The
type of language constructed by second or foreign
language learners who are still in
the
process of learning a language is often referred
to as interlanguage.
?
It is often
understood as a language system between the target
language and the
learner‘s native
language.
?
Interlanguage
is a dynamic language system, which is constantly
moving from the
departure level to the
native-like level.
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Can be done in
two ways:
?
investigating the psychological,
biological or neurological mechanisms involved in
the
production of interlanguage;
?
investigating the linguistic features
of interlanguage.
?
Concerning the linguistic features of
interlanguage, the following questions can be
asked:
?
Linguistically, how is interlanguage in
general different from the target language or the
native language?
?
In what way is
lower level interlanguage different from higher
level interlanguage?
?
How is the interlanguage system used to
convey meaning?
Constructivism
?
Language (or any knowledge) is socially
constructed.
?
Learners learn language by cooperating,
negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks.
?
In
other words, they construct language in certain
social and cultural contexts.
2. Linguistics and Language Teaching
?
Linguistics
theories influence our general orientation in
approaches to language teaching.
?
Linguistic
knowledge helps teachers to better explain the
specific language items they
teach.
2.1 Discourse-based view
?
Linguistic
patterns exist across stretches of text.
?
These patterns of language extend
beyond the words, clauses and sentences, which
have been the traditional concern of
much language teaching.
?
Focuses on
complete spoken and written texts and on the
social and cultural contexts
in which
such language operates.
?
Accordingly, it
aims at developing discourse competence, similar
to the well-known
concept of
communicative competence.
Communicative competence
?
Dell Hymes
?
What a learners knows about how a
language is used in particular situations for
effective and appropriate
communication.
?
Includes knowledge of the grammar and
vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking,
knowledge of how to use and respond to
different types of speech acts and social
conventions, and knowledge of how to
use language appropriately.
?
It is believed
that language learning will successfully take
place when language learners
know how
and when to use the language in various settings
and when they have
successfully
cognized various forms of competence such as
grammatical competence
(lexis,
morphology, syntax and phonology) and pragmatic
competence (e.g., speech acts).
?
In the case of
foreign/second language learning, language
learners are encouraged to deal
with
accomplishing actions, which are thought to help
them acquire the target language.
?
Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-based Language
Teaching (TBLT)
are the best known
examples of such a theory.
?
In the CLT or
TBLT classroom, students are expected to learn by
performing tasks.
Task-
based
?
Two broad
types of tasks: real-world tasks and pedagogical
tasks.
?
A real-world task is very close to
something we do in daily life or work.
?
Pedagogical
tasks are those activities that students do in the
classroom but that may
not take place
in real life. (information gap)
Drawbacks
?
Overemphasizes
the role of external factors in the process of
language acquisition and
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