-
1
.
G
r
a
m
m
< br>a
t
i
c
a
l
H
i
e
r
a
r
c
h
y
?
M
o
r
p
h
e
m
e
,
W
o
r
d
< br>
,
P
h
r
a
s
e
,
C
l
a
u
s
e
,
S
e
n
t
e
n
c
< br>e
1
.
3
P
h
r
a
s
e
s
?
T
h
e
p
h
r
a
s
e
i
s
< br>c
o
m
p
o
s
e
d
o
f
o
n
e
o
r
m
o
r
e
t
h
a
n
o
n
e
w
o
r
d
.
G
e
n
e
r
a
< br>l
l
y
,
t
h
e
p
h
r
a
s
e
i
s
a
g
r
o
u
p
o
f
w
o
r
d
s
o
r
g
a
n
i
z
< br>e
d
i
n
a
s
p
e
c
i
f
i
c
w
a
y
w
i
t
h
a
k
e
y
w
o
r
d
a
s
i
t
s
h
e
a
d
.
T
h
e
w
o
r
d
c
l
a
s
s
o
f
t
h
e
h
e
a
d
d
e
t
e
r
m
i
< br>n
e
s
t
h
e
c
l
a
s
s
o
f
t
h
e
p
h
r
a
s
e
a
n
d
t
h
e
w
a
y
i
n
w
h
i
c
h
t
h
e
w
o
r
d
s
a
r
e
o
r
g
a
n
i
z
e
d
.
(
1
)
T
h
e
n
o
u
n
p
h
r
a
s
e
?
T
h
e
n
o
u
n
p
h
r
a
s
< br>e
i
s
a
p
h
r
a
s
e
w
i
t
h
a
< br>n
o
u
n
a
s
i
t
s
h
e
a
d
.
?
T
h
e
< br>g
e
n
e
r
a
l
p
a
t
t
e
r
n
o
f
a
n
o
u
n
p
h
r
a
s
e
i
s
:
?
(
d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
e
r
< br>
+
)
(
p
r
e
m
o
d
i
f
i
e
r
+
)
n
o
u
n
(
+
p
o
s
t
< br>m
o
d
i
f
i
e
r
)
(
2
)
T
h
e
v
e
r
b
p
h
r
a
s
e
?
T
h
e
v
e
r
b
p
h
r
a
s
< br>e
i
s
a
p
h
r
a
s
e
w
i
t
h
a
< br>m
a
i
n
v
e
r
b
a
s
i
t
s
h
e
a
d
.
?
A
v
e
r
b
p
h
r
a
s
e
c
a
n
b
e
s
i
m
p
l
e
o
r
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
.
A
s
i
m
p
l
e
v
e
r
b
p
h
< br>r
a
s
e
i
s
j
u
s
t
a
m
a
i
n
v
e
r
b
o
r
“
m
o
d
i
f
i
e
r
+
m
< br>a
i
n
v
e
r
b
”
.
A
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
v
e
r
b
< br>
p
h
r
a
s
e
i
s
a
m
a
i
n
v
e
r
b
p
r
e
c
< br>e
d
e
d
b
y
a
n
a
u
x
i
l
i
a
r
y
(
o
r
a
u
x
i
l
i
a
r
i
e
s
)
< br>
(
+
m
o
d
i
f
i
e
r
)
.
(
2
)
T
h
e
v
e
r
b
p
h
r
a
s
e
?
I
n
t
e
r
m
s
o
f
g
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
l
f
< br>o
r
m
,
a
v
e
r
b
p
h
r
a
s
e
c
a
n
b
e
f
i
n
i
t
e
o
r
n
o
n
-
f
i
n
i
t
e
.
?
A
f
i
n
i
t
e
v
e
r
b
< br>p
h
r
a
s
e
i
s
i
n
i
t
i
a
t
e
d
b
y
a
f
i
n
i
t
e
f
o
r
m
,
t
< br>h
a
t
i
s
,
a
v
e
r
b
f
o
r
m
t
h
a
t
< br>
c
h
a
n
g
e
s
a
c
c
o
r
d
i
n
g
t
o
t
e
n
s
e
o
r
s
u
b
j
< br>e
c
t
.
?
A
n
o
n
-
f
i
n
i
t
e
v
e
r
b
< br>p
h
r
a
s
e
i
s
a
p
h
r
a
s
e
i
n
i
t
i
a
t
< br>e
d
b
y
a
n
o
n
-
f
i
n
i
t
e
f
o
r
< br>m
,
t
h
a
t
i
s
,
a
v
e
r
b
f
o
r
m
t
h
a
t
< br>
d
o
e
s
n
o
t
c
h
a
n
g
e
a
c
c
o
r
< br>d
i
n
g
t
o
t
e
n
s
e
o
r
s
u
b
j
e
c
t
.
< br>
(
3
)
T
h
e
a
d
j
e
c
t
i
v
e
p
h
< br>r
a
s
e
?
T
h
e
a
d
j
e
c
t
i
v
e
p
h
r
a
< br>s
e
i
s
a
p
h
r
a
s
e
w
i
t
h
a
n
a
d
j
e
c
t
i
v
e
a
s
i
t
s
h
e
a
d
.
?
T
h
e
g
< br>e
n
e
r
a
l
p
a
t
t
e
r
n
o
f
a
n
a
d
j
e
c
t
i
v
e
p
h
r
< br>a
s
e
i
s
:
?
(
m
o
d
i
f
i
e
r
+
)
a
d
j
e
c
t
i
v
e
(
+
p
o
s
t
m
o
c
l
i
f
i
e
r
< br>
/
c
o
m
p
l
e
m
e
n
t
a
t
i
o
n
)
?
S
e
e
< br>L
e
c
t
u
r
e
2
3
i
n
d
e
t
a
i
l
(
4
)
T
h
e
a
d
v
e
r
b
p
h
r
a
s
< br>e
?
T
h
e
a
d
v
e
r
b
p
h
r
a
s
e
i
s
a
p
h
r
a
s
e
w
i
t
h
a
n
a
d
v
e
r
b
a
s
i
t
s
h
e
a
d
.
?
T
h
e
< br>g
e
n
e
r
a
l
p
a
t
t
e
r
n
o
f
a
n
a
d
v
e
r
b
p
h
r
a
s
e
< br>
i
s
:
?
(
m
o
d
i
f
i
e
r
+
)
a
d
v
e
r
b
(
+
p
o
s
t
m
o
d
i
f
i
e
r
< br>)
?
S
e
e
L
e
c
t
u
r
e
2
4
i
n
d
e
t
a
i
l
(
5
)
T
h
e
p
r
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
a
< br>l
p
h
r
a
s
e
?
T
h
e
p
r
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
< br>n
a
l
p
h
r
a
s
e
i
s
a
p
h
r
a
s
e
w
i
t
h
a
< br>p
r
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
a
s
i
t
s
h
e
a
d
.
?
T
h
e
< br>g
e
n
e
r
a
l
p
a
t
t
e
r
n
o
f
a
p
r
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
a
l
< br>p
h
r
a
s
e
i
s
:
?
(
m
o
d
i
f
i
e
r
+
)
p
r
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
+
c
o
m
p
l
e
m
e
n
t
a
t
i
o
< br>n
?
S
e
e
L
e
c
t
u
r
e
2
6
i
n
d
e
t
a
i
l
2
S
u
b
j
< br>e
c
t
-
V
e
r
b
C
o
n
c
o
r
d
?
Concord means “agreement”
between subject and predicate verb in person and
number.
?
在英语中，句子的
主语和谓语动词之间必须在人称和数上保持一致关系，即主谓一致关系。
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
l
e
s
o
f
C
o
n
c
o
r
d
?
grammatical
principle, notional principle, principle of
proximity
G
r
a
m
m
a
t
i
c
a
l
< br>
c
o
n
c
o
r
d
?
It refers to
the rule that the verb must match its subject in
number and in person.
?
Everybody was happy with
the decision.
?
Both boys
have their own merits.
N
o
t
i
o
n
a
l
c
o
n
c
o
< br>r
d
?
As the name suggests it is
concerned with the subject-verb concord on the
semantic basis i.e. the
verb
can
sometimes
agree
with
the
subject
according
to
the
notion
of
number
rather
than
to
the
actual
presence of the
grammatical marker for that notion.
?
The audience were brought
to their feet at the sight of superman in his
wheelchair.
?
Fifteen miles
seems like a long walk to me.
P
< br>r
o
x
i
m
i
t
y
?
It denotes
agreement of the verb with a closely preceding
noun phrase in preference to agreement
with the head of the noun phrase that
functions as subject.
?
Neither my wife nor I am
going to the ceremony.
?
No
one except his own supporters agree with him.
3
G
e
n
i
t
i
v
e
N
o
u
n
?
CASE
is
a
grammatical
category.
It denotes
the
changes
in
the
form
of
a
noun
or
a
pronoun
showing
its relationship with other words in a
sentence.
3
P
r
o
n
o
u
n
r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
?
Pronoun
reference is a kind of reference realized through
the use of pronouns. When a pronoun
is
used,
it
must
refer
to
somebody
or
something.
What
is
referred
to
is
called
referent
or
antecedent.
It is the
antecedent that indicates the referential meaning
of the pronoun.
1
)
A
n
a
p
h
o
r
i
c
,
c
a
< br>t
a
p
h
o
r
i
c
a
n
d
s
i
t
u
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
< br>r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
?
According
to
the
relative
position
of
the
referent
or
antecedent,
pronoun
reference
can
be
anaphoric or cataphoric.
?
When
the
antecedent
occurs
before
the
pronoun,
which
has
to
point
backward
for
its
own
interpretation, that is
anaphoric reference;
?
If
the
antecedent
appears
after
the
pronoun,
and
the
pronoun
has
to
point
forward
for
its
meaning,
that
is cataphoric reference.
?
If the antecedent does not
occur anywhere in a linguistic context, and the
pronoun only refers to
somebody or
something indicated by an extralinguistic
situation in which the utterance is given, that
is situational reference.
?
Examples:
?
Bob told Lucy that Ruth was
leaving, but
she
didn’t believe
him
.
?
(anaphoric reference)
?
When
he
was at college, Alex was
a great friend of mine.
?
(cataphoric reference)
?
(Pointing to the children’s
bedro
om) Are
they
asleep?
?
(situational
reference)
2
)
P
e
r
s
o
n
a
l
r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
?
Personal
reference
is
established
by
personal
pronouns,
possessive
pronouns,
reflexive
pronouns
and
corresponding
determiners.
Personal
reference
is
generally
anaphoric.
It
may
occur
within
the
sentence boundary or across sentences.
?
Personal
reference
can
also
be
cataphoric,
but
under
limited
conditions.
Generally
speaking,
cataphoric
personal
pronouns
usually
occur
in
subordinate
constructions,
and
where
cataphoric
reference occurs,
anaphoric reference can be used instead, but not
conversely, eg:
?
After
she
weighed anchor, the ship
sailed out of the harbour.
?
= After the ship weighed
anchor,
she
sailed out of
the harbour.
?
Mary bought a
new dress, but
she
didn’t like it.
?
≠
She
bought a new
dress, but Mary didn’t
like it.
3
)
D
e
m
o
n
s
t
r
a
t
i
v
e
< br>
r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
?
Demonstrative
reference
is
established
by
demonstrative
pronouns
and
demonstrative
determiners.
All the
demonstratives can be freely used in anaphoric
reference. As for
cataphoric
demonstratives,
they are
restricted to
this
and
these
, which are commonly
used to refer to a clause or sentence or
a group of sentences that follow. That
and those are rarely used cataphorically. When
occasionally
so used, that and those
often take on sarcastic meanings. Compare:
?
Necessity is
the mother of invention.
This
/
That
is remarkably true.
?
(anaphoric reference)
?
Listen to
this
. There should be no
error, no delay, and no waste.
?
(cataphoric reference)
?
How do you like
that
? He stabs you in the
back and then professes to be your friend.
?
(cataphoric reference)
P
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
?
Correct errors, if
any, in the following sentences:
?
1. The furniture is
their’s, but the house is our’s.
?
The furniture is
theirs
, but the house is
ours
.
?
2. I’ve bought several
paintings of him.
?
I’ve bo
ught
several paintings of
his
.
?
3. The
professor interviewed the applicant himself.
?
The professor
himself
interviewed the applicant.
?
4. You probably know to who
I am referring.
?
You
probably know to
whom
I am
referring.
?
5. I don’t like
you to arrive late.
?
I
don’t like
your arriving
late.
?
6. No one but myself really
understands him.
?
Correct.
?
7.
Sex
education
should
be
taught
in
high
schools
because
parents
are
either
too
scared
or
too
busy
to teach the facts of
life to them.
?
…to teach the
facts of life to
their
children
.
?
8.
Since his father is an accountant, he is going to
major in it.
?
major in
accounting
.
?
9. The cottage was situated
on a hill which had a splendid view from every
window.
?
On a hill was
situated the cottage,
which had a
splendid view from every window.
4
.
D
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
e
r
s
?
Words
that
precede
any
premodifying
adjectives
in
a
noun
phrase
and
which
denote
such
referential
meanings
as
specific
reference,
generic
reference,
definite
quantity
or
indefinite
quantity
are
referred to as
determiners.
4
.
2
C
o
l
l
o
c
a
t
i
o
n
s
< br>
b
e
t
w
e
e
n
d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
e
r
s
?
According to their
potential position, determiners fall into three
subclasses:
?
central
determiners
?
predeterminers
?
postdeterminers
5. Dynamic and stative verbs
?
According to lexical
meaning, main verbs can be dynamic and stative.
?
Dynamic verbs are verbs
that refer to actions.
?
Stative verbs are verbs
that refer to states, ie to a relatively stable
state of affairs.
tense, aspect, voice
and mood
?
In this section we
are going to have a quick survey of the four
important grammatical categories
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