-
TPO-48
Chinese Population Growth
Increases in population have usually
been accompanied (indeed facilitated) by an
increase in
trade. In the Western
experience, commerce provided the conditions that
allowed industrialization
to
get
started,
which
in
turn
led
to
growth
in
science,
technology,
industry,
transport,
communications,
social change, and the like that we group under
the broad term of “development.”
However,
the
massive
increase
in
population
that
in
Europe
was
at
first
attributed
to
industrialization starting in the
eighteenth century occurred also and at the same
period in China,
even though there was
no comparable industrialization.
It is estimated that the
Chinese population by 1600 was close to 150
million. The transition
between the
Ming and Qing dynasties (the seventeenth century)
may have seen a decline, but from
1741
to
1851
the
annual
figures
rose
steadily
and
spectacularly,
perhaps
beginning
with
143
million and ending with
432 million. If we accept these totals, we are
confronted with a situation
in
which
the
Chinese
population
doubled
in
the
50
years
from
1790
to
1840.
If,
with
greater
caution, we assume lower totals in the
early eighteenth century and only 400 million in
1850, we
still face a startling fact:
something like a doubling of the vast Chinese
population in the century
before
Western contact, foreign trade, and
industrialization could have had much effect.
To explain this
sudden increase we cannot point to factors
constant in Chinese society but
must find conditions or a combination
of factors that were newly effective in this
period. Among
these is the almost
complete internal peace maintained under Manchu
rule during the eighteenth
century.
There
was
also
an
increase
in
foreign
trade
through
Guangzhou
(southern
China)
and
some improvement of
transportation within the empire. Control of
disease, like the checking of
smallpox
by
variolation
may have been
important. But of most critical importance was the
food
supply.
Confronted with a multitude of
unreliable figures, economists have compared the
population
records with the aggregate
data for cultivated land area and grain production
in the six centuries
since
1368.
Assuming
that
China’s
population
in
1400
was
about
80
million,
the
economist
Dwight Perkins
concludes that its growth to 700 million or more
in the 1960s was made possible
by a
steady increase in the grain supply, which
evidently grew five or six times between 1400 and
1800 and rose another 50 percent
between 1800 and 1965. This increase of food
supply was due
perhaps
half
to
the
increase
of
cultivated
area,
particularly
by
migration
and
settlement
in
the
central
and
western
provinces,
and
half
to
greater
productivity
—the
farmers’
success
in
raising
more
crops per unit of land.
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This
technological
advance took
many
forms:
one
was
the
continual
introduction
from
the
south of earlier-
ripening varieties of rice, which made possible
double-cropping (the production of
two
harvests per year fr
om one field). ■
New crops such as corn (maize) and sweet potatoes
as
well
as
peanuts
and
tobacco
were
introduced
from
the
Americas.
■Corn,
for
instance,
can
be
grown on the dry soil and marginal hill
land of North China, where it is used for food,
fuel, and
fodder
and
provides
something
like
one-
seventh
of
the
food
energy
available
in
the
area.
■The
sweet
potato, growing in sandy soil and providing more
food energy per unit of land than other
crops, became the main food of the poor
in much of the South Chi
na rice area. ■
Productivity in
agriculture was also improved by capital
investments, first of all in irrigation.
From 1400 to 1900 the total of
irrigated land seems to have increased almost
three times. There
was also a gain in
farm tools, draft animals, and fertilizer, to say
nothing of the population growth
itself,
which
increased
half
again
as
fast
as
cultivated
land
area
and
so
increased
the
ratio
of
human
hands available per unit of land. Thus the rising
population was fed by a more intensive
agriculture, applying more labor and
fertilizer to the land.
1. Which of the sentences below best
expresses the essential information in the
highlighted
sentence in the passage?
Incorrect choices change the meaning in important
ways or leave out
essential
information.
A. Commerce,
industrialization, and development are common
features of the Western
experience.
B. Trade,
industrialization, and development accelerated
social change in Western societies.
C. Trade and industrialization brought
about development in Western societies.
D. In Western societies,
social change provided the conditions for
development in a number of
areas.
2. The word
“
attributed
” in the passage
is closest in meaning to
A.
accustomed
B. credited
C. exposed
D. transformed
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3. According to
paragraphs 1 and 2, which of the following is true
of Chinese population growth
between
1741and 1851?
A. It
coincided with the beginning of industrialization
in China.
B. It prompted
speculation about the actual number of people
living in China in previous
centuries.
C. It continued the steady
growth in population of previous centuries.
D. It occurred in the
absence of certain conditions generally associated
with population growth.
4. According to paragraph2, the
estimated population of China in the mid 1700s
was?
A. 143 million
B. 150 million
C. 400 million
D. 432 million
5. The word “
constant
” in the passage is closest in meaning
to
A. unique
B. dominant
C.
altered
D. unchanging
6. Paragraph 3
supports all of the following statements about
eighteenth-century Chinese society
EXCEPT:
A. It
was troubled by frequent conflicts with foreign
nations.
B. It improved its
transportation system.
C.
It experienced growth in international commerce.
D. It managed to prevent
the spread of certain diseases.
7. Paragraph 4 answers
which of the following questions about China’s
population growth
between 1400 and
1965?
A. Which figures
relating to China
’s population growth
were unreliable?
B. Why did
Dwight Perkins assume that China’s population in
1400 was about 80 million?
C. Where in China did most of the
population increase take place?
D. What factors made China’s population
growth between 1400 and 1965 possible?
8. The word
“
aggregate
” in the passage
is closest in meaning to
A.
available
B. reliable
C. combined
D. recorded
9. What can be inferred from paragraph
5 about the introduction of corn and sweet
potatoes in
China?
A. These crops required much more care
than other crops.
B. These
crops were consumed in limited quantities.
C. These crops permitted an
expansion of the area used for farming.
D. These crops became
available all over China within a short period of
time.
10. The
word “
ratio
” in the passage
is closest in meaning to
A.
proportion
B. availability
C. importance
D. cost
11. Which of the following is NOT
mentioned in paragraphs 5 and 6 as one of the
strategies the
Chinese applied in
agriculture?
A. The growing
of two crops on the same field during the same
year
B. The improvement of
systems to supply crops with water
C. The application of increasing
amounts of fertilizer to the land
D. The reduction in the amount of human
labor per unit of land
12. What purpose does paragraph 5 serve
in the larger discussion about China’s population
growth?
A. It
provides evidence of China’s emerging foreign
trade relations.
B. It
illustrates how the Chinese increased their food
supply.
C. It provides
evidence of why population growth was most
noticeable in the south.
D.
It shows how foreign crops gradually gained
greater acceptance in China.
at the four squares [■]
that indicate where the following sentence could
be added to the
passage.
Other developments addressed the
problems of dry and sandy areas unsuitable
forgrowing
China’s native
crops.
Where would the
sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add
the sentence to the passage.
14.
Directions:
An introductory sentence for a brief
summary of the passage is provided below.
Complete the summary by selecting the
THREE answer choices that express the most
important
ideas in the passage. Some
sentences do not belong in the summary because
they express ideas
that are not
presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the
passage.
This question is worth
2points.
Over the centuries, China has
experienced an extraordinary increase in its
population.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
A. Understanding the exceptional
increase in population in China requires giving up
commonly
held assumptions relative to
the phenomenon of population growth.
B. The economist Dwight Perkins applied
a particular statistical method to determine the
increase
in China’s population.
C. The sudden population
growth in China started in its northern and
southern provinces, and it
spread
rapidly to the central and western areas of the
country.
D. Improved
transportation management and enhanced disease
control contributed to China’s
population explosion.
E. The increase in China’s food supply,
which affected population growth, was the result
of
technological developments in
agriculture and capital investment.
F. A steady increase in foreign trade
since the 1400s provided the conditions necessary
for
large-scale agricultural
development.
参考答案：
1-5.C B D A D
6-10.A D C C A
11-13.D B A
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参考译文：中国的人口增长
人口增长
通常伴随着
（事实上促进了）贸易的增加。按照西方的经验，
商
业为工业化的
开始提供了条件，而工业化反过来又导致了科学、技术、工业、交通运输、
通信进步和社会
变化等等，
我们把这些统称为
< br>“
发展
”
。但是，十八世纪开始
的工业化带来了欧洲的人口大幅
增长；同时间中国的人口也暴涨，尽管中国没有经历类似
的工业化。
据估计，到
1600
年中国的人口已经接近
1
亿
5000
万。明清之交<
/p>
（十七世纪）人口数量
可能有所减少，但从
1741
年到
1851
年，人口数量
每年都稳步上升，从
1
亿
4300
万涨到了
4
亿
32
00
万，相当惊人。如果我们认为这些合计数字没问题，我们将面临这样一个情形：
从
1790
年到
1
840
年，
中国人口在这
50
年间翻了一番。
如果谨慎一些，
我们假设在
18
世纪
初总人数要少一些，到
1850
年也只有
4
亿的
话，事实依然让人吃惊：在与西方接触、对外
贸易和工业化之前，中国庞大的人口数量翻
倍本应产生很大的影响。
要解释这种突然的人口增加，
我们不能指向中国社会的一些一直不变的
因素，
而是必须
找到当时新出现的一系列条件或诸多组成因素。
其中包括十八世纪的中国处于满族统治下，
国内几乎完全和平。广州（华南）的对外贸易
也有所增加，国家内部的交通也有所改善。还
有一个重要因素是疾病的控制，
如通过人痘接种来克制天花。
但这当中最重要的还是食品供
应。
< br>面对大量的不可靠的数据，经济学家将
1368
年以来的
6
个世纪的人口统计记录与耕地
面积和
粮食生产总量的综合数据进行了比较。
经济学家德怀特
·
帕金斯得出结论，
假设在
1400
年中国的人口是
8000
万左右，由于粮食产量稳
步增长，到
20
世纪
60
年代人口是有可能增
长到
7
亿人的，
明显地从
1400
年到
1800
年增长了
5
到
6
倍，
从
1
800
年到
1965
年又增长了
50%
。
粮食供应的增加可能一半是由于耕地
面积的增加，
特别移民并定居到中西部省份带来
的耕地面积增加
；
另一半是由于生产力的提高
——
农民
成功提高了每单位土地面积的粮食产
量。
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TPO
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技术进步有许多形式：
一个是不断从南方引进早熟的水稻品种，
这种水稻可以一年两熟
（一块地每年收获两季）。新作物如玉米、红薯、花生和烟草
从美洲传进来。拿玉米来说，
可以在干燥的土壤和华北边缘的山地种植，可用作食品、<
/p>
燃料、饲料，提供了当地七分之一
的食物能量。
< br>红薯可以在沙质土壤中种植，
由于每单位土地面积提供的食物能量比其他作物
都多，所以成为了华南水稻种植地区穷人们的主要食品。
资本的投入也提高了农业生产力。
首
先是灌溉方面，
从
1400
年到
1900
年，
总灌溉土地似乎
增加了近三倍。
农用工具、役畜和肥料方面都有进步，更不用说人口本身也有增
长，增速是
耕地面积增速的一半，
因此增加了人均可用土地面积
的比例。
这种更加密集的农业生产为增
长的人口提供食物，而人
口为土地提供更多的劳动力和肥料。
Determining Dinosaur Diet
Determining
what
extinct
dinosaurs
ate
is
difficult,
but
we
can
infer
some
aspects
of
their
dietary preferences. Traditionally,
this information has been derived from direct
evidence, such as
stomach
contents,
and
indirect
evidence,
such
as
establishing
a
correlation
between
particular
body
characteristics and diets of living animals and
then inferring habits for dinosaurs.
Animals such as house cats and dogs
have large, stabbing canine teeth at the front of
the mouth
and smaller, equally sharp
teeth farther back in their jaws. Many of these
animals are also armed
with sharp
claws. The advantage of teeth and claws as
predatory tools is obvious. Now consider
animals like cows, horses, rabbits, and
mice. These animals have flat teeth at the back of
the jaw
that are analogous to and have
the same function as grindstones. Unlike the meat-
slicing and
stabbing teeth of
carnivores, the teeth of these animals grind and
shred plant material before
digestion.
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More clues exist in other parts of the
skull. The jaw joint of carnivores such as dogs
and
cats has the mechanical advantage
of being at the same level as the tooth row,
allowing the jaws to
close with
tremendous speed and forcing the upper teeth to
occlude against the lower teeth with
great precision. In herbivorous
animals, rapid jaw closure is less important.
Because the flat teeth
of herbivores
work like grindstones, however, the jaws mush move
both side to side and front to
back.
The jaw joints of many advanced herbivores, such
as cows, lie at a different level than the
tooth row, allowing transverse tearing,
shredding, and compression
of plant
material. ■If we
extend such
observations to extinct dinosaurs, we can infer
dietary preferences (such as carnivory
and herbivory), even though we cannot
determine the exact diet. ■The
duck
-billed dinosaurs
known
as hadrosaurs are a good example of a group whose
jaw joint is below the level of the tooth
row, which probably helped them grind
up tough, fibrous vegetation.
■Paleontologists
would
like
to
be
much
more
specific
about
a
dinosaur's
diet
than
simply
differentiating
carnivore
from
herbivore.
■This
finer
level
of
resolution
requires
direct
fossil
evidence of dinosaur
meals. Stomach contents are only rarely preserved,
but when present, allow
us to determine
exactly what these animals were eating.
In
the
stomach
contents
of
specimens
of
Coelophysis
(a
small,
long-necked
dinosaur)
are
bones
from
juvenile
animals
of
the
same
species.
At
one
time,
these
were
thought
to
represent
embryonic animals,
suggesting that this small dinosaur gave birth to
live young rather than laying
eggs.
Further research indicated that the small
dinosaurs were too large and too well developed to
be prehatchling young. In addition, the
juveniles inside the body cavity were of different
sizes. All
the evidence points to the
conclusion that these are the remains of prey
items and that, as an adult,
Coelophysis was at least in part a
cannibal.
Fossilized stomach contents
are not restricted to carnivorous dinosaurs. In a
few rare cases,
most
of
them
“mummies”
(unusually
well
preserved
specimens),
fossilized
plant
remains
have
been
found
inside
the
body
cavity
of
hadrosaurs.
Some
paleontologists
have
argued
that
these
represent
stream
accumulations
rather
than
final
meals.
The
best
known
of
these
cases
is
the
second
Edmontosaurus mummy collected by the Sternbergs.
In the chest cavity of this specimen,
which is housed in the Senckenberg
Museum in Germany, are the fossil remains of
conifer needles,
twigs, seeds, and
fruits. Similar finds in Corythosaurus specimens
from Alberta, Canada, have also
been
reported, indicating that at least two kinds of
Late Cretaceous hadrosaurs fed on the sorts of
tress that are common in today's boreal
woodlands.
A second form of direct
evidence comes from coprolites (fossilized bodily
waste).
Several
dinosaur
fossil
localities
preserve
coprolites.
Coprolites
yield
unequivocal
evidence
about
the
dietary
habits
of
dinosaurs.
Many
parts
of
plants
and
animals
are
extremely
resistant
to
the
digestive
systems
of
animals
and
pass
completely
through
the
body
with
little
or
no
alteration.
Study
of
coprolites
has
indicated
that
the
diets
of
some
herbivorous
dinosaurs
were
relatively
diverse, while
other dinosaurs appear to have been specialists,
feeding on particular types of plants.
The
problem
with
inferring
diets
from
coprolites
is
the
difficulty
in
accurately
associating
a
particular coprolite with a specific
dinosaur.
1. The word
“
Traditionally
” in the
passage is closest in meaning to
A. typically
B. naturally
C. originally
D. partly
2. According to
paragraph 2, which of the following is true of the
teeth of carnivores?
A Carnivores'
teeth for grinding and shredding are located in
the front of their jaws.
B Carnivore
teeth are designed to break down food thoroughly
before digestion.
C Carnivores have
teeth at the back of their jaws that are as sharp
as their front teeth.
D Carnivores have
both sharp teeth for slicing meat and flat teeth
for grinding meat.
3. In
paragraph 2, the author compares the teeth of
cows, horses, rabbits, and mice to grindstones
in order to explain
A. how
certain kinds of teeth aid digestion
B.
how the teeth of some familiar mammals differ from
those of dinosaurs
C. why the back
teeth of herbivores are larger than those of
carnivores
D. why the back teeth of
carnivores are just as sharp as their front teeth
4.
Which
of
the
sentences
below
best
expresses
the
essential
information
in
the
highlighted
sentence
in
the
passage?
Incorrect
choices
change
the
meaning
in
important
ways
or
leave
out
essential information.
A.
The advantage of bringing the upper teeth directly
against the lower teeth is a more precise
bite.
B. Animals whose jaw
joint is at the same level as their teeth can bite
quickly and accurately.
C. The location
of an animal's jaw joint in respect to its teeth
determines the speed at which it can
close its jaws.
D. The
carnivore jaw has the advantage of allowing the
upper teeth to move with greater speed
and precision than the lower teeth do.
5. The word
“
compression
” in the passage
is closest in meaning to
A.
destruction
B. crushing
C.
swallowing
D. removal
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6. According to
paragraphs 3 and 4, what can studies of living
animals help scientists determine
about
individual dinosaurs?
A How the overall
jaw size of a given dinosaur species relates to
the type of food the species
members
ate
B Whether a given dinosaur
generally ate plants or generally ate meat
C How much food a given dinosaur would
have needed to eat to remain healthy
D
How an inadequate diet may have affected a given
dinosaur's skull and jaw
7.
According
to
paragraph
5,
all
of
the
following
support
the
claim
that
the
adult
Coelophysis
sometimes ate
young Coelophysis EXCEPT:
A Juveniles
found in the body cavities of adults were too
advanced in their development to be
embryos.
B Juveniles of
different sizes were found in the body cavity of
the same adult.
C Juveniles found in
the body cavities of adults were too large to be
embryos.
D Juveniles found in the body
cavities of adults were in unhatched eggs.
8. The word
“
restricted
” in the passage
is closest in meaning to
A.
related
B. critical
C.
common
D. limited
9. What explanation is
given in paragraph 7 to support the idea that
coprolites are a good source of
information about what dinosaurs ate?
A. They are likely to be preserved
because of their resistance to decay.
B. They contain some parts of plants
and animals that are unchanged by the digestive
process.
C. They are usually found in
close proximity to other dinosaur fossils.
D. They are produced by both carnivores
and herbivores.
10. The
word “
diverse
” in the
passage is
closest in meaning to
A. healthy
B. varied
C. pure
D. stable
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