简明中国历史介绍(英文)

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The Neolithic period began in China about 12,000 B.C. However, good

evidence of Neolithic settlements exists from only about 4,000 B.C. The

Neolithic lasted until about 2,000 B.C. It is defined by a spread of settled

agricultural

communities, but

hunting

and

gathering

was

still

practiced.

The largest concentration of agriculture was below the southern bend of

the

Y

ellow

River

and

millet

was

the

main

crop.

The

geography

of

Neolithic China was different from today. It was much wetter, with most

of Northern China being lakes and marshes and central China covered in

an

enormous

lake.

The

climate

was

warm

and

moist,

rather

than

the

colder, arid China of today. The mountains were well forested and there

was a variety of animals.

Silk

production,

for

which

China

is

famous,

had

already

been

invented

before this time period began. The process began

in Northern China. It

involved feeding the silkworms mulberry

leaves, helping them molt and

spin

their

cocoons,

and

finally,

boiling

the

cocoons

to

produce

the

raw

silk. Pottery was also present during this time period. The two main types,

Painted

Pottery

and

Black

Pottery,

belong

to

the

two

distinct

cultural

groups of the Neolithic, the Y

angshao and the Lungshan. These two types

of pottery were not for everyday use, rather, a plain course type of pottery

was used that varied between the colors gray, black, red, and white. The

dwellings of this time were in clusters that suggest kinship was important.

Clothing

was

made

of

hemp

and

the

main

domesticated

animals

were

pigs and dogs.

The Y

angshao lived in the mountainous regions of northern and western

China

in round or rectangular

houses that were below ground level and

surrounded by little walls of earth. They created Painted Pottery that had

geometric designs on

it. The pottery was fired at 1000-1500°

C, but the

potters wheel was not used. Axes and arrowheads were made of polished

stone and other tools were made of stone chips. Millet was the main crop

of the Y

angshao. They domesticated two main animals, the dog and the

pig, with the pig being the more important..

The Lungshan

lived on the plains of eastern China. Their villages were

similar to those of the Y

angshao, but evidence of stamped earth fortresses

is found in some sites. They created Black Pottery. This pottery was of

exceptional quality. It had a polished exterior, was never painted, and is

almost

always

without

decoration.

This pottery

may

have

been

a

direct

predecessor

to

later

Chinese

pottery,

as

the

forms

of

the

vessels

are

typical

of

Chinese

pottery.

Firing

bones

for

the

purpose

of

divination,

which continued into the following dynasties, also began during this time.

The Lungshan began to bury their dead facing downwards, which is how

all

bodies

were

buried

during

the

Bronze

Age.

They

used

bones

for

arrowheads and small tools, but used polished stones for axes and sickles.

Their domesticated animals were the pig, dog, sheep, and ox..

X

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For many years, the Xia Dynasty was thought to be a part of a myth that

the Chinese tell as part of their history. The Xia Dynasty was in oral

histories, but no archaeological evidence was found of it until 1959.

Excavations at Erlitous, in the city of Yanshi, uncovered what was most

likely a capital of the Xia Dynasty. The site showed that the people were

direct ancestors of the

Lungshan

and were predecessors of the

Shang

.

Radiocarbon dates from this site indicate that they existed from 2100 to

1800 B.C. Despite this new archaeological evidence of the Xia, they are

not universally accepted as a true dynasty.

The Xia were agrarian people, with bronze weapons and pottery. The

ruling families used elaborate and dramatic rituals to confirm their power

to govern. The rulers often acted as shamans, communicating with spirits

for help and guidance.

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The Shang, rather than the

Xia

, is considered by most to be the first true

dynasty of China. Like the Xia, the Shang were originally considered to

be

a

myth.

They

were

discovered

because

Chinese

phamacists

were

selling oracle bones the Shang had created; the parmacists sold the bones

as dragon bones. The bones were first noticed in 1899 and by the 1920's

were

traced

to

Anyang

,

where

the

last

Shang

capital

was

found

and

excavated. Excavations were halted in 1937, when Japan attacked China.

In

the

1950's

an

earlier

Shang

capital

was

found

near

present

day

Zhengzhou. Traditional Chinese history indicates that the Shang Dynasty

consisted of 30 kings and seven different, successive, capitals. The

Zhou

,

the dynasty that followed the Shang, are responsible for the recordings of

the kings and capitals of the Shang Dynasty.

The center of the Shang capitals had the ruler's palace. Surrounding this

were houses of artisans. These houses were rectangular, using a post and

beam construction and were built on stamped earth platforms.

Subterranean pithouses were located near the capital, which may have

been used for storage and service quarters. The Shang people had bronze

weapons, bronze fittings for chariots and harnesses, and bronze vessels

connected with worship. Everyday vessels were of earthenware, rather

than bronze, because metals were scarce in China. The earthenware of

this time was almost porcelain, only missing the glaze that would have

made it porcelain. Despite being agriculturalists, the Shang had rather

primitive implements. They did not use ploughs, favoring hoes instead,

and most of the implements were made of wood and stone. They grew

grains such as millet and some wheat, which were harvested with sickles.

The Shang had a unique form of descent. Rather than passing from father

to son, the Shang form of descent passed from the eldest brother to the

youngest brother.

One of the most important technological developments of the Shang was

the invention of writing. They are the first group of people from China of

which written records are found. The most common place these writings

are found is on oracle bones used for divination. The bones used for this

purpose originally came from a number of animals, but were eventually

done exclusively on turtle shells. A question was written on the bone,

which was then fired and a T shaped crack was produced which was

interpreted, and the interpretation was then written on the bone. After the

predicted event occurred, the date of the occurrence was also written on

the bone. Writing is also found on bronze and stone, but the majority of

the records have decayed as they were recorded on bamboo strips. The

Shang may also have written on silk.

The Shang worshipped the

over lesser gods, the sun, the moon, the wind, the rain, and other natural

forces and places. Highly ritualized, ancestor worship became a part of

the Shang religion. Sacrifice to the gods and the ancestors was also a

major part of the Shang religion. When a king died, hundreds of slaves

and prisoners were often sacrificed and buried with him. People were also

sacrificed in lower numbers when important events, such as the founding

of a palace or temple, occurred.

The Shang king had considerable power over his subjects. Public works

were built that required many people. The capital at Zhengzhou, for

example, had a wall of stamped earth around it that was four miles long

and up to 27 feet high in areas. Stamped earth walls were made by

pounding thin layers of earth within a movable wooden frame. The earth

then becomes as hard as cement.

Z

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The

Zhou

began

as

a

semi-nomadic

tribe

that

lived

to

the

west

of

the

Shang

kingdom. Due to their nomadic ways, they

learned how to work

with

people

of

different

cultures.

After

a

time,

they

settled

in

the

Wei

River

valley,

where

they

became

vassals

of

the

Shang.

The

Zhou

eventually became stronger than the Shang, and in about 1040 B.C. they

defeated the Shang

in

warfare. They built their capital

in

Xi'an. Part of

their

success

was

the

result

of

gaining

the

allegiance

of

disaffected

city-states. The Shang were also weakened due to their constant warfare

with people to the north.

Traditional Chinese history says that the Zhou were able to take over the

Shang because the Shang had degenerated morally. Part of this belief may

have been caused by the Zhou themselves, who are credited with the idea

of the Mandate of Heaven. The Zhou used this idea to validate their

takeover and subsequent ruling of the former Shang kingdom. The

Mandate of Heaven says that Heaven, or

tian,

places the mandate,

tianming,

to rule on any family that is morally worthy of the

responsibility. Also, the only way to know if the Mandate of Heaven had

been removed from the ruling family was if they were overthrown. If the

ruler is overthrown, then the victors had the Mandate of Heaven.

The Zhou adopted much of the Shang lifestyle, often importing Shang

families or communities to new towns they built to utilize the knowledge

of the Shang artisans. The bronze vessels of the Zhou are nearly identical

with those of the Shang. The Zhou also adopted much of the Shang

writing system, rituals, and administration techniques. The Zhou however,

began a different form of governing, which was basically feudal. Land

was given to people in elaborate ceremonies. The landowners became

vassals to the king. Descent became patriarchal, from father to son, rather

than from eldest brother to youngest brother as practiced by the Shang.

The Zhou, despite transporting the Shang to their cities for their skills, did

not want to live directly with the Shang. Their capital was divided into

two sections, one for the Zhou, that contained the imperial court, and the

other half for the transported Shang. Other Zhou cities exhibit this same

characteristic. However, this was the only major change in cities from the

Shang Dynasty to the Zhou Dynasty. Otherwise, the houses remained the

same as in the Shang Dynasty.

The Zhou also brought their religion with them. They banned human

sacrifice. They practiced the cult of Heaven. The worship of sun and stars

was the most important thing. Some of the popular Shang gods became

incorporated into this system. They were lesser gods, and served as feudal

lords to the Heaven-god.

The Zhou Dynasty is divided into subperiods. The first is the Western

Zhou, which occurs from the time of their victory over the Shang until

about 771 B.C. when they were forced east by barbarians from the north.

The king was killed but his son was saved and moved east where a new

capital was formed in Loyang. This began the period known as the

Eastern Zhou. The Eastern Zhou is further divided into two time periods,

the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. The Spring

and Autumn Period occurred from about 770-476 B.C. During this time,

the Zhou emperor steadily lost power due to the realization by the feudal

lords that he was not powerful and could be beaten, which had been

proven by the defeat in the west. The second half, the Warring States

Period, is so named because of the power struggle between the large

states of China that were trying to gain control over the entire area. It

lasted from about 475 - 221 B.C.

This time period of the Warring States is considered the classical age, it

was a time of great philosophers. This cultural flowering is sometimes

called the One Hundred Schools Period. Confucianism, Taoism, and

Legalism developed during this time. Of these three, Legalism had the

most immediate effect, as it was the philosophy that the

Qin

, the next

dynasty used as the basis of their rule. Some of the most memorable

poetry and prose was also written during this time. Other advances

included the writing down of the laws, an increase in market places, and a

money economy. The development of iron, and tools made of iron,

greatly increased agriculture and thus population exploded.

Q

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The Qin came to power in 221 B.C. They were one of the western states

that existed during the Warring States Period. They conquered the other

Warring States,

unifying China for the first time. Their leader named

himself the First Emperor, or Shi huangdi, thus beginning the tradition of

having emperors for rulers. The Qin, while not the most culturally

advanced of the Warring States was militarily the strongest. They utilized

many new technologies in warfare, especially cavalry. The Qin are

sometimes called the Ch'in, which is probably where the name China

originated.

The Qin made many changes that were meant to unify China and aid in

administrative tasks. First, the Qin implemented a Legalist form of

government, which was how the former Qin territory had been governed.

The area was divided up in 36 commanderies which were then subdivided

into counties. These commanderies had a civil governor, a military

commander, and an imperial inspector. The leaders of the commanderies

had to report to the Emperor in writing. The Legalist form of government

involved rewards and punishments to keep order. Also, the state had

absolute control over the people, and the former nobility lost all of their

power. The nobility were also transplanted from their homes to the capital.

Groups were formed of units of five to ten families, which then had a

group responsibility for the wrongdoings of any individual within the

group.

The achievements of the Qin are numerous. They standardized the

language and writing of China, which had varied greatly from area to area

during the Warring States Period. This was done partially out of a need to

have a consistent way to communicate across the country; administrators

had to be able to read the writing of the commandery to which they were

sent. Also, currency became standardized as a circular copper coin with a

square hole in the middle. Measurements and axle length were also made

uniform. This was done because the cartwheels made ruts in the road, and

the ruts had to all be the same width, or carts with a different axle length

could not travel on them. Many public works projects were also

undertaken. A Great Wall was built in the north, to protect against

invasions. Roads and irrigation canals were built throughout the country.

Also, a huge palace was built for Shi huangdi. The Qin are also famous

for the terra cotta army that was found at the burial site for Shi huangdi.

The army consisted of 6,000 pottery soldiers that protected the tomb.

They may be a replacement for the actual people who had previously

been buried with the rulers.

Despite all of these accomplishments, Shi huangdi was not a popular

leader. The public works and taxes were too great a burden to the

population. It seemed that Shi huangdi could not be satisfied. Also, the

nobility disliked him because they were deprived of all their power and

transplanted. Finally, he banned all books that advocated forms of

government other than the current one. The writings of the great

philosophers of the

One Hundred Schools

time were burned and more

than 400 opponents were executed.

The Qin rule came to an end shortly after the First Emperor's death. Shi

huangdi had only ruled for 37 years, when he died suddenly in 210 B.C.

His son took the throne as the Second Emperor, but was quickly

overthrown and the

Han dynasty

began in 206 B.C.

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The Han empire began in 206 B.C. when Liu Bang, prince of Han,

defeated the

Qin

army in the valley of Wei. The defeat was part of a

larger rebellion that began after the First Emporer's death. The people

were dissatisfied with the tyranny of the Qin leaders and their Legalist

form of government. However, while traditional Chinese history portrays

the Han as implementing immediate changes in government, evidence

shows the Han continued to rule in the tradition of the Qin, and only

gradually incorporated Confucian ideals into their Legalist form of

government. Economic expansion, changing relationships with the people

of the steppes, strengthening of the palace at the expense of the civil

service, weakening of the state's hold on the peasantry, and the rise of the

families of the rich and the gentry were all factors that led to the adoption

of Confucian ideals..

Under this new form of Legalism and Confucianism, rewards and

punishments were still used for common people. However, the

administrators were judged based on Confucian principles with the

justification for these different sets of standards as they were educated.

As a last resort, the ruler could use punishment for both the people and

the officials. It was believed that force alone was not a sufficient way to

rule and so the emperor needed the help of the Confucianists to guide him

morally. Evidence of rulers using their power to punish is found in the

records of officials who were beheaded.

When Liu Bang conquered the Qin, he created his capital at Ch'ang-an.

He kept most of the laws and regulations by the Qin and made many of

his friends nobility and gave them fiefs. However, the land was still

divided up into commanderies and prefectures. Even the fiefs given out

were treated like commanderies. Han power was based on direct control

of people by the state.

Like the Qin before them, the main goal of the Han was the unification of

China. This goal led to the eventual breakup of the fiefs and the downfall

of the imperial nobility. This process was finally complete during Wu Ti's

reign (141-87 B.C.) His reign was a period of great military expansion.

He expanded the borders into Vietnam and Korea and pushed the Hsiung

nu south of the Gobi. Wu Ti transplanted an estimated 2 million people to

the northwestern region in order to colonize these areas.

The expansion also led to trade with the people of inner Asia. Thereafter,

the Silk Road was developed. The Silk Road actually consisted of more

than one possible route through the mountains that the traders followed.

Agriculture grew with the development of better tools. Iron tools were

made of better quality, and oxen drawn ploughs were commonly used.

Irrigation systems were increased to help develop the areas of North

China. Crop rotation was also practiced from 85 B.C. onwards. The state

attempted to monopolize the production of iron and salt, which were the

two biggest sectors of the economy, but succeeded for less than a century.

Silk weaving and copper work were also important activities.

Education became more important during this period, as a new class of

gentry was introduced. A result of this was the compilation of many

encyclopedias. The best known is the

Book of the Mountains and Seas

,

which contained everything known at the time about geography, natural

philosophy, the animal and plant world, and popular myths. Sima Qian,

considered to be China's greatest historian wrote his famous

Records of

the Historian (Shiji)

during this time. This history book became the

model by which all other histories would follow. It was one of the first

attempts in China to make a record of the past in a proper form.

The Han Dynasty is actually two separate dynasties. It is considered one

dynasty by the Chinese because the second dynasty was founded by a

member of the former Han dynasty who declared he had restored the Han

Dynasty. The original Han Dynasty was overthrown when the wealthy

families gained more power than the emperor. The families became allied

with each other through marriages and were responsible for the selection

of officials. The widow of the emperor Yü

an Ti succeeded in placing all

of her relatives in government positions and ruling in place of her son.

Her nephew, Wang Mang eventually declared himself emperor of a new

dynasty, the Hsing (New). His rise to emperor is unusual because he

gained much public support on his rise and he began a ceremony in which

a seal of precious stone was passed to the emperor. From then on,

whoever held this seal was the official emperor. Wang Mang was

overthrown by a secret society of peasants known as the Red Eyebrows,

because they painted their eyebrows red. The descendents of the Han

dynasty eventually joined in the uprising, and, it was the armies of these

nobles, under the leadership of Liu Hsiu, who killed Wang Mang in

22A.D. The fighting continued until 25 A.D., when Liu Hsiu became the

emperor. As an emperor he was called Kuang-wu Ti. Millions of people

died during the fighting, leaving land for the peasants, and often, the

freedom of debt as the lenders had died.

The second Han Dynasty had much success with their foreign policy. Part

of this success was due more to luck than to anything the Han did. The

Hsiung nu who had previously been one of the most dangerous enemies

of the Chinese were defeated by the Hsien-pi and the Wu- huan. Half of

the Hsiung nu moved south, and became part of the Chinese empire. The

Hsiung

nu

appeared

to

be

trying

to

reunite

and

form

a

large

empire

comprising

all

of

Turkestan.

Thus,

in

73

A.D.

the

Chinese

began

a

campaign

in Turkestan. The whole of Turkestan was quickly conquered

which

would

have

ensured

a

trading

monopoly,

however,

the

emperor

Ming Ti died and Chang Ti became emperor. He favored an isolationist

policy so that much of what was gained in Turkestan was now lost. Pan

Ch'ao,

the

deputy

commander

who

had

led

the

invasion,

stayed

in

Turkestan to try and hold onto what had been won, and eventually in 89

A.D. a new emperor came to power with a renewed

interest

in holding

Turkestan. Despite this military success, economic and political struggles

arose within China. Internal struggles for power taxed the peasants, until

in 184 A.D. when another peasant uprising occurred. This movement was

begun by the Y

ellow Turbans. This uprising served to unite the factions

who

had

previously

been

fighting

one

another

because

they

needed

to

unite to defeat the Y

ellow Turbans. Despite conquering them, China did

not return to a united state. Rather,

three kingdoms

emerged and the Han

dynasty came to an end.

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The end of the

Han Dynasty

was followed by a long period of disunity

and civil war. It began with the Three Kingdoms. These kingdoms grew

out of the three chief economic areas of the

Han Dynasty

. The leaders of

the kingdoms strove to reunite the empire and were therefore at constant

warfare. These three kingdoms were the Wei, in northern China, the Shu

to the west, and the Wu in the east. The Three Kingdoms existed from

220-265 A.D.

Buddhism

began to spread throughout China during this

period. It was introduced in the first century A.D. but did not really begin

to spread until after the Han empire collapsed. Tea, although not as

popular as it would be in later times, was discovered in the south during

this period. Porcelain was also developed during this time.

The kingdom of Wei was ruled by Ts'ao Ts'ao. This was the strongest of

the kingdoms, and he had power over the valley of Wei even during the

time of the Han rule. Ts'ao Ts'ao attempted to unify all of China under his

rule, but was defeated by Sun Ch'ü

an and Liu Pei in the battle of the Red

Cliff. This defeat was the beginning of the division into three kingdoms.

The Wei and Shu kingdoms were both centralized, legalist kingdoms,

while the Wu kingdom was ruled by a confederation of the most powerful

families of the area. The Wei kingdom eventually captured the Shu

kingdom in 263 A.D.

Ts'ao Ts'ao instituted many military changes that would have a great

impact on the future of China. His army consisted of both Chinese and

people that were considered barbarians, the Hsiung-nu, the Hsien-pei,

Wu-huan and the Ch'iang. The members of his army who provided the

best troops were the former nomadic herdsmen of the steppes. They were

the most skilled mounted bowmen. The use of people from different

groups resulted in an assimilation among the people which had not

occurred in the past. In the future, these assimilated nomads would form

independent kingdoms in North China. The Ssu-ma was a militant family

that rose to power very quickly, and one of its members, Ssu-ma Yen

founded the new

Chin Dynasty

in 265 A.D.

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Ssu-ma Yen began the Chin Dynasty; he ruled from 265-289A.D. As an

emperor, he was called Wu Ti. The Chin managed to reunify China when,

in 280 A.D., they conquered the Wu Kingdom, thus ending the period of

The Three Kingdoms

. Despite this success, they were not a stable empire.

After defeating the Wu, there was no longer a serious danger of being

invaded. Therefore, the emperor declared the armies should be disbanded,

and all the arms returned. However, this did not occur in every region.

The princes, most of whom had been given their titles due to their

relationship to the emperor, declared they needed personal guards. The

discharged soldiers belonged mainly to the state and didn't give up their

weapons either. Instead, they sold them, mainly to the Hsiung-nu and the

Hsien-pi. This was a fatal mistake of the Chin government, as it made

them virtually powerless, while all their rivals and enemies gained power.

After the death of Ssu-ma Yen, there was never again a strong leader. The

leaders and princes were often assassinated in the struggle for power.

During this time, the Chinese people surrounding the capital suffered due

to the fighting and began a migration out from the center of the empire to

the more peaceful frontier regions.

The Chin were eventually defeated by the Huns, who claimed they were

descendents of the

Han Dynasty

because of the Han princesses given to

them in marriage. However, they never succeeded in forming a true

dynasty and uniting China. Rather, the disunity continued with the

Northern and Southern dynasties

. The defeated Chin fled and from

317-420 they ruled as the Eastern Chin in Nanking.

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The Dynasties of the North and South were another lengthy period of

disunity and internal strife for China. It lasted from 317-589A.D. During

this time period, the north and south were split and two separate

successions of dynasties formed. In both the north and the south, there

were different groups of rulers. Many of the dynasties overlapped each

other in terms of time.

The northern dynasties consisted of the Northern Wei (386-533A.D.), the

Eastern Wei (534-540A.D.), the Western Wei (535-557A.D.), the

Northern Qi (550-577A.D.) and the Northern Zhou (557-588). The

southern dynasties consisted of the Song (420-478 A.D.), the Qi (479-501

A.D.), the Liang (502-556 A.D.) and the Chen (557-588 A.D.).

In the north especially,

Buddhism

flourished. This was due partly to the

fact that the nobles who had been the main followers of Confucianism

moved south. The tenets of Buddhism appealed to the country people for

a number of reasons, but especially because of Buddhism's promise of an

afterlife, which is nonexistent in Confucianism. The poor who had

suffered under the wealthy were offered hope in Buddhism's

reincarnation to a better life if one lived their current life well. This meant

the nobles who had oppressed them would come back to a harder life and

they would come back to a better life. Another factor in the spread of

Buddhism was China was ruled by non-Chinese, who were not already

committed to the Confucian religion or the traditional shamanistic

religions of China.

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The

Sui

Dynasty

lasted

from

580-618

A.D.

The

Sui

once

again

united

China.

They

were

led

in

their

campaign

to

unite

China

by

Y

ang

Chien

who had been an official of the

Northern Zhou

. The Sui Dynasty had only

two emperors, Y

ang Chien who was called Emperor Wen Ti and his son

Emperor Y

ang. Traditionally, Emperor Y

ang is portrayed as usurping the

imperial

power, and is criticized for the amount of money he spent and

his

cruelty

to

the

people.

Y

et

most

of

the

policies

he

followed

were

simply continuations of his father's policies.

Despite having a short lifetime, the Sui Dynasty accomplished many

things. The Grand Canal was extended north from Hangzhou across the

Yangzi to Yangzhou and then northwest to the region of Louyang. The

internal administration also improved during this time, which is evident

by several things; the building of granaries around the capitals, the

fortification of the Great Wall along the northern borders, the

reconstruction of the two capitals near the Yellow River, and building of

another capital in Yangchow. Confucianism also began to regain

popularity, as the nobles gained importance.

The Sui rulers were interested in expanding their borders and, along with

their public works projects, they began costly military campaigns. They

were largely successful with their efforts at territorial expansion into the

south. However, to the north, in Korea, they did not achieve much. They

attacked Korea four times, and each time were met with defeat. These

defeats in Korea led to an attack by the Khan of the eastern Turks who

surrounded the emperor. Independent governments arose and for five

years, China was again split into smaller states.

T

’

a

n

g

D

y

n

a

s

t

y

The T’ang are closely associated with the

Sui

, and are often discussed as

the same dynasty. Their dynasty lasted from 618-907 A.D. Much of their

power was made possible through the canals built by the

Sui

. These

canals allowed for communications to all parts of the empire. Also, the

granaries the Sui built alongside the canals helped the T’ang to transport

goods from the south to the north. This especially was important in the

transfer of rice to the north in times of famine. These canals were

important in the econ

omic development of the T’ang empire.

The T’ang expanded on the administrative system that dated from the 4

th

and 3

rd

centuries B.C. and earlier. The administration was comprised of

four main departments: a Department of State Affairs, an Imperial

Chancellory, an Imperial Grand Secretariat, and a Council of State.

Judicially, the T’ang also made many advances. They first compiled the

T’ang Code in 624 A.D. This is the first complete Chinese code that still

exists. It consists of a continuous scale of penalties that are applied based

on both the crime and the degree of relation between the criminal and the

offended person. The degree was based on the amount of time that would

be spent in mourning if the person died. The T’ang Code had more than

five hundred articles divided into twelve sections.

The land distribution program of the T’ang was an important part of both

their agricultural reform and their economic growth. The T’ang

implemented a program where they gave life plots to the peasant families.

This w

as supposed to be an equal distribution of the land. The T’ang

wanted to ensure that the families had enough land to both support

themselves and to pay taxes. Taxes were based therefore, not on how

much land one had, but on the number of people in the family. Each

person was responsible for certain taxes. This system of taxation by