-
Chapter 1 Oil and Gas Fields
第
1
章
油气田
1.1 An Introduction to Oil and Gas
Production
1.1
石油和天然气生产的介绍
The complex nature of
wellstreams is responsible for the complex
processing of the produced fluids (gas,
oil
，
water,
and
solids).
The
hydrocarbon
portion
must
be
separated
into
products
that
can
be
stored
and/or
transported.
The
nonhydrocarbon contaminants must be
removed as much as feasible to meet storage,
transport, reinjection, and disposal
specifications. Ultimate disposal of
the various waste streams depends on factors such
as the location of the field and the
applicable environmental regulations.
The overriding criterion for product selection,
construction, and operation decisions
is economics.
<
/p>
油气井井流的复杂性质，决定了所产流体
(
气、油、水和固体
)
的加工十分复杂。必须分出井流中的烃类
，使之
成为能储存和
/
或能输送的各种
产品
;
必须尽可能地脱除井流中的非烃杂质，以满足储存、输送
、回注和排放的规范。
各类废弃物的最终处置取决于各种因素，
如油气田所处地域和所采用的环保规定等。
经济性是决定油气田产品设计、
建筑和操作决策的最重要准则。
Fig. 1-1 is a comprehensive picture of
the individual unit operations carried out in
field processing. All the various
modules shown will not all be present
in every system. Furthermore, the modules used in
a given application may not be
arranged
in the exact sequence shown, although the sequence
is
，
in general, correct. The
selection and sequencing of
modules is
determined during the design phase of field
development.
图<
/p>
1-1
表示在矿场进行的各种单元操作的综合图。
在各系统内不一定有图
1-- }
所示的全部操作模块
。
尽管图中
所示的加工顺序通常是正确的，但在某一特定使用情
况下，模块的布置可能会与图中所示的顺序不同。在油气田开
发设计阶段确定模块的选择
和排列顺序。
As shown
in Fig. 1-1
，
the individual
phases (gas
，
liquid
hydrocarbon, liquid water, and solids) should be
separated from
each other as early as
practical. Individual streams can then be treated
with less technical difficulty and more
economically.
Hartley and Bin Jadid
(1989) illustrate how lab and field tests
performed before construction can identify and
minimize
future
production
and
processing
problems
such
as
scaling,
foaming,
emulsion
formation,
wax
deposition,
and
hydrate
formation. Processing of the separated
streams is now reviewed briefly because many of
the individual unit operations are
discussed in detail in subsequent
chapters.
如图
1-1<
/p>
所示，应尽早将各股流体
(
气、液态烃、
液态水和固体
)
分离。这样，单独处理各股流体时，技术难度<
/p>
较小，也较经济。
Hartley
和
Bin Jadid (19$$9
阐明了在建设前进行的室内和现场
试验可以发现并减少将来在生产和加
工中可能出现的问题，
如结
垢、
发泡、
形成乳状液、
结蜡以及生成
水合物等
,
现在简要介绍被分离的各股流体的加工，
在后续章节中将详细讨论其中的许多单元操作。
1 .1 .1 Gas Processing
1 .1 .1
气体加工
As shown in Fig.
1-1
，
gas processing begins
with treating, if necessary, to remove the acid
gases- hydrogen sulfide and
carbon
dioxide.
Both
gases
are
very
corrosive
when
liquid
water
is
present
and
hydrogen
sulfide
is
most
toxic.
Environmental
regulations
almost
always
prohibit
the
release
of
significant
amounts
of
hydrogen
sulfide
to
the
surroundings. Conversion to elemental
sulfur is becoming increasingly necessary.
如图
1-Z
所示，气体加工
(
若需要
)
从脱除酸气
(H
2
S
和
CO
2
)
开始。当存在液态水时，这两种气体有极强的腐蚀性
,
而且
H
2
S
< br>极具毒性。环保法规几乎都禁止向周围环境排放大量
H
2
S
，而且正愈来愈多地要求将
H
2
S
转变为元素硫。
Gas sweetening
usually uses aqueous solutions of various
chemicals. Therefore, sweetening will precede
dehydration.
Dehydration
is
often
necessary
to
prevent
the
formation
of
gas
hydrates,
which
may
plug
high-
pressure
processing
equipment or pipelines at high pressure
and at temperatures considerably higher than
32
°
F
(0
°
C).
天然气脱酸气常使用各种化学剂的水溶液，因而脱酸气应在气体脱水之前进行。为防止生成气体水合物，常需
进行脱水。在高压和比
32
°
F(0
℃
)
高的温度下
，水合物可能堵塞高压工艺设备和管线。
Gas that contains
considerable amounts of liquefiable
hydrocarbons (ethane or propane and heavier) can
produce
condensate
upon
compressing
or
cooling.
The
condensate
may
cause
difficulty
in
pipelining
or
subsequent
processing.
Field
processing
to
remove
these
natural-gas
liquids
(
NGL
)
,
sometimes
referred
to
simply
as
condensate,
may
be
economical
or
may
be
required
to
meet
a
hydrocarbon
dew-point
specification.
In
remote
locations
such
processing
is
generally
avoided
if
possible.
Recovered
condensate
may,
in
turn,
have
to
be
stabilized
by
removing
dissolved
gaseous
components to obtain a transportable
product.
含有大量可液
化烃类
(C
2
+
或
C
3
+
)
的气体，在压缩或冷却时一可能产生凝析油。凝析油会给管输和后续加一带来
困难。在矿场脱除这些天然气液体
(NGL,
有时
简称为凝析油
)
可能是经济的，或为满足烃露点规定所必需的。
在边远
地区应尽一量避免脱除凝析油的工作。回收的凝析油必须进行稳定，脱除溶解气组
分，以获得可输送的产品。
1
.1 .2 Oil Processing
1 .1
.2
原油加工
After free water removal, produced oil
often contains excessive residual emulsified
water
。
].
Treating, also called
dehydration, is
required to reduce the water content to a value
acceptable for transportation or sales.
Dehydration should
be
accomplished
using
the
most
economic
combination
of
four
factors
or
techniques;namely, residence
time,
chemical
addition, heat, and electrostatic
fields. Dilution water must occasionally be added
to reduce the salt content of the residual
emulsion
(i. e.
,
the
sales
crude
oil)
to
a
suitably
low
level.
In
the
United
States
，
desalting
is
usually
performed
in
the
refinery
；
overseas
，
desalting is sometimes
performed in the field.
脱除游离水后，
< br>生产的原油内常含有过量的残余乳化水。
含有过量残余乳化水的原油需要进行处理
(
也称脱水
)
，
将水含量降至运输和销售允许的限度内。可应用四种技术的最经济组合实施脱水，即停
留时间、化学添加剂、加热
和静电场。有时还必须掺人稀释水，将残余乳状液
(
即销售原油
)
内的盐含
量降低至合理的低浓度。美国，脱盐常在
炼厂进行；美国以外地区，脱盐有时在矿场进行
。
Hydrogen
sulfide
in
crude
oil
is
limited
to
reduce
handling
and
transportation
difficulties
because
of
its
extreme
toxicity
and
corrosiveness.
Gas
stripping
or
heating
is
usually
used
for
hydrogen
sulfide
removal
or
sweetening
as
is
discussed latterly.
由于
H
2<
/p>
S
具有剧毒和腐蚀性，故应限制原油内
H
2
S
的含量，以降低原油装卸、沛在和
输送过程的困难。如在
后续内容中讨论的那样，常用气提或加热方法脱除原油内的
H
2
S
，或使其“甜
化”。
Crude oil
stabilization refers to lowering the vapor
pressure to a value that will allow safe handling
and transport.
Vapor
pressure
control
is
obtained
by
stage
separation,
reboiled
distillation,
or
a
combination
of
the
two.
During
stabilization some of
the more volatile hydrocarbons are removed as
vapor and this gas phase entrains hydrogen sulfide
and other volatile sulfur compounds
from the sour crude oil. Additional sweetening may
not be required.
原油稳定是指将蒸气压降低至某一数值，在该蒸气压下原油可安全地装卸、储存和运输。多级分离、再沸蒸< /p>
馏或多级分离与再沸蒸馏相结合，
来控制原油蒸气压。
在稳定过程中，
某些挥发性强的烃类成为蒸气从原油内分出，
这种烃类气体还从酸性原油内带出
H
2
S
和其他挥发性强的硫化物。原油也可能不需要专门的脱硫或“甜化”处理。
1.
2 Brief Description of Crude Oil Surface Treatment
1.
2
原油地面处理简介
Well fluids are often a complex mixture
of liquid hydrocarbons, gas, and some impurities.
It is necessary to remove
the
gas
and
some
impurities
from
the
liquid
hydrocarbons
before
they
are
stored,
transported,
and
sold.
Liquid
hydrocarbons
and
objectionable
impurities
must
also
be
removed
from
natural
gas
before
the
gas
goes
to
a
sales
line.
Impurities
that
might
be
found
in
some
well
streams
are
hydrogen
sulfide
，
carbon
dioxide
free
water,
water
vapor,
mercaptans,
nitrogen,helium,and solids. Nearly all of site
impurities cause various types of operating
problems.
井流通常是液态烃、气体和某些杂质的
复杂混合物。在液态烃储存、输送和销售前，必须从浪态烃中脱除气体
和某些杂质。
气体进人销售管道前，
也必须从天然气中脱除液态烃和有害杂质
.
在某些并流中，
可能存在的杂质是硫
化氢、二氧化碳、游离水、水蒸气、硫醇、氮、氦和固体杂质。几乎所有的杂质都会引起各种
操作问题。
The
separation
of
natural
gas,liquid
hydrocarbons,
and
impurities
is
accomplished
by
various
field-processing
methods,depending upon the composition
of the well stream and the desired end product.
Those methods include time,
chemicals,
gravity,heat,chemicals or electrical processes,
and combinations of these.
根据井流的组成和要求的终端产品，可采用各种现场加工方法实现天然气、液态烃和杂质的分离。这些方法包
括时间、化学药品、重力、热、机械或电加工，以及上述方法的综合运用。
< br>
1 .2 .1 Separators
1 .2
.1
分离器
Separation
of
well-stream
gas
from
free
liquids
is
the
most
common
and
simplest
form
of
field
processing.
The
equipment most widely
used for this type of processing is referred to as
a separator. The separation of natural gas from
liquids and/or impurities m a separator
combines gravity, time,mechanical processes, and
occasionally chemicals.
液体与
井流气的分离是现场加工最普遍和最简单的方式。这类加工中最常用的设备称为分离器。在分离器内，
从液体和
/
或杂质中分出天然气时可综合使用重力
、时间和机械方法，偶尔也采用化学药剂。
The size of the separator is dependent
upon rate of flow of the natural ^as
and/or liquids going in the vessel. The
operating pressure of the vessel is
dependent upon the pressure of the gas sales line,
the flowing pressure of the well,and
operating pressure desired by the lease
operator.
分离器的大小取决于进人分离器的天然
气流量和
/
或液体流量。容器的操作压力取决于气体销售管线的
压力、
井的流动压力和矿场操作人员要求的操作压力。
Separators are built in
various designs, such as vertical,horizontal and
spherical. The internals of the vessel. to aid in
the mechanical separation of the gas
and liquids, are of a special design,depending
upon the manufacture. Although most
separators are two-phase in design
separating the gas and liquids, they can be built
three-phase lo separate natural gas,
liquid hydrocarbons,and free water(Fig.
1-2).
分离器有各种不同设计，如立式、卧式和球形分
离器。促进气液机械分离的容器内部构件是由制造商专门设计
的。尽管设计中多数分离器
只分离气液两相，但能制造分离天然气、液态烃和游离水的三相分离器
(
图
1-2)
。
1 .2 .2 Oil Treating
1 .2
.2
原油处理
When crude oil is produced, various
amounts of gas, water,and other impurities are
mixed with the oil. Some of this
mixture comes as free oil,some as free
water, and some as a homogeneous mixture known as
an emulsion. The gas ,water,
and other
impurities (known as basic sediment and water)
must be removed before selling the oil. This
separation process
is called oil
treating.
采出的原油会混有不同数量的气、水和
其他杂质。这种混合物中有些为原油，有些为游离水，有些为被称作乳
状液的均匀混合物
。原油销售前必须脱除气体、水和其他杂质
(
称为底部沉积物和
水
)
。这种分离过程称为原油处理。
Treating
systems
are
important
parts
of
lease
equipment.
Experience
in
a
particular
field
or
area
is
valuable
in
determining the best equipment for the
application.
处理系统是矿场设备的重要组成
部分。在确定原油的最佳处理设备时是有价值的，在特定油田和地区的经验十
分重要。<
/p>
In selecting a treating
system, a number of factors should be considered
to determine the most desirable method of
treating the crude oil to pipeline
requirements. Some of these factors are:
为了确定原油的最佳处理方法，使之满足管输要求，在选择处
理系统时应考虑许多因素。其中的一些因素是：
(1) Tightness of emulsion.
（
1
）乳液的牢固程度。
(2) Specific gravity
of the oil and produced water.
（
2
）油和采出水的相对密度。
(3) Corrosiveness of the
oil ,gas,and produced water.
（
3
）油，气，和采出水的腐蚀性。
(4) Scaling tendencies of
the produced water.
（
4
）采出水的结垢趋势。
(5) Quantity of fluid to be treated and
percent of water in the fluid.
（
5
）需处理的流体数量和流体内的水含量。
(6) Availability of
sales line for the gas.
（
6
）是否有气体销售管线。
(7) Desirable operating
pressure for the equipment.
（
7
）设备所需的操作压力。
(8) Paraffin-forming
tendencies of the crude oil.
（
8
）原油的结蜡倾向。
Oil-field emulsions are
usually of the water-in-oil type;however, a few of
the emulsions are oil-in-water type and are
called reverse emulsions. Emulsions are
complex and each should be considered
individually.
油田乳状液通常为油包水型，
个别情况为水包油型，并称为反相乳状液。乳状液非常复杂，对每一种乳状液都
应单独考
虑。
In order to
break a crude oil emulsion and obtain clean oil,
it is necessary to displace the emulsifier and its
film. This
brings about the coalescence
of droplets of water and furnishes a means and
time period of undisturbed settling of the
coalesced water drops. There are
several methods used in conjunction with one
another to
“
treat
”
an oil emulsion.
为使原油乳状液破乳并得到净化油，需要一置换乳化剂及其薄膜。这样可促使水摘聚结、并并为聚结水滴提供<
/p>
无干扰的沉降时间和沉降方法。处理原油乳状液有多种彼此组合的方法。
< br>
1 .2 .5 Vertical
Treaters
1 .2
.5
立式处理器
The most commonly used single-well
lease treater is the vertical treater as shown in
Fig. 1-5. Flow enters the top of
the
treater into a gas separation section. Care must
be exercised to size this section so that it has
adequate dimensions to
separate the gas
from the inlet flow. If the treater is located
downstream of a separator, this chamber can be
very small.
The gas separation section
should have an inlet diverter and a mist
extractor.
图
1-5<
/p>
所示的立式处理器是最常用的矿场单井处理器。
井流进入处理器顶
部的气体分离段。
在确定该段尺寸时，
应使其有有足够的空间寸
来从井流中分离出气体。如果处理器位于分离器下游，气体分离段可以很小。气体分离段
应有一个入口分流器和捕雾器。
The liquids flow through a downcomer to
the base of the treater. which serves as a free-
water knockout section. If the
treater
is located downstream of a free-water knockout ,
the bottom section can be very small. If the total
wollstream is to
be treated this
section should be sized for 3 to 5 minutes
retention time for both the oil and the water to
allow the free
water to settle out.
This will minimize the amount of fuel gas needed
to heat the liquid stream rising through the
heating
section. The end of the
downcomer should be slightly below the oil water
interface to
“
water
wash
”
the oil being treated.
This will assist in the coalescence of
water droplets in the oil.
液体通过降液管流至处理器底部，
该段为游离水分离段。
如果处
理器位于游离水分离器下游，
则该段可以很小。
如果要处理全部
井流，以油、水在该段都停留
3-5
min
< br>来确定该段的大小，以便游离水沉降。分出游离水后，将减
少向上通过加热段液流
所需的加热燃料气为了用水洗涤被处理的原油，降液管的底端应略低于油水界面。水洗将促
进原油内水滴的聚结。
The
oil
and
emulsion
rises
over
the
heater
fire-tubes
to
a
coalescing
section
where
sufficient
retention
time
is
provided
to allow the small water particles in the oil
continuous phase to coalesce and settle to the
bottom.
原油及其乳状液上升，通过加热器火筒至聚结段。聚结段可提供足够的
停留时间，便连续相原油内的水滴聚结
并沉降至处理器底部
Treated oil flows out the
oil outlet. Any gas, flashed from the oil due to
heating, flows through the equalizing line to
the gas space above. Oil level is
maintained by pneumatic or lever operated dump
valves. Oil-water interface is controlled
by an interface controller, or an
adjustable external water leg.
处理后的原油从油出口流出。由于加热，从原油内闪蒸出的气
体通过平衡管线流入处理器顶端的气体空间。
气动或连杆操作的出油阀可控制油面液位，
由界面控制器或外部可调出水管线控制油水界面。
The detailed design of the treater,
including the design of internals (many features
of which are patented) should be
the
responsibility of the equipment supplier.
处理器及其内部构件
(
构件的许多特点都有相应专利
)
的详细设计应由设备
供应商负责。
1.2.6 Stabilization and Sweetening of
Crude Oil
1.2.6
原油的稳定和脱酸
Dissolved gas in the
wellhead crude oil must be removed to meet
pipeline, storage, or tanker Reid vapor
pressure(RVP)
specifications . When the
oil is essentially free of dissolved natural gas,
or
“
dead
”
< br>then it can be stored in a vented tank at
atmospheric
pressure
subject,
of
course,
to
emission
regulations.
The
presence
of
the
most
volatile
hydrocarbons
( C1
,C2,C3,etc. ) increases the RVP dramatically.
Removal of these dissolved natural-gas components
is called crude oil
stabilization.
必须脱去井口原油内的溶解气，以满足管道、储存或油轮运输
对雷特蒸气压的技术规定。只有当原油内基本上
没有溶解天然气
(
或称“死油”
)
并满足废气排放规定
时，才能储存在常压通风储罐内。原油内存在挥发性极强的组
分
(C1
，
C2
，
C3
，等
)
时，将极大地增加雷特蒸
气压。脱除这些溶解的天然气组分称为原油稳定。
The RVP
is
usually
set
in
the
range
of 10
-12 psia,which
generally
yields
a
true
vapor
pressure (T V
P
)
—
o
r,more
。
properly,
a bubble point pressure at 100
F- of
slightly higher value,13
—
15
psia. Other important specifications that must
be met are BS&W and H2S content.
Hydrogen sulfide specifications are usually in the
range of 10-60 ppm (Moins ,1980).
通常，设定的雷特蒸气压范围为
14--12
psia
，雷特蒸气压
(RVP)
一般比真实蒸气压（
TVP
，确切的说是
< br>144
0
F
下
的泡点压力）略低，真实蒸气压约为
13--15
p
sia
。对原油的其他重要规定还包括水和悬浮固体含量以及
H
2
S
含量。
对
H
2
S
含量的
规定范围常为
10 -60 ppm
（
Moins,1980
）。
Often a considerable amount
of gas is dissolved in crude oil. Hydrocarbons are
usually worth more as liquid (i. e. , in
the crude oil phase than in the vapor
or natural gas phase), even when associated gas is
used for LNG[I8] or when the gas
is
sold and condensate is extracted.
原油内常溶有相当数量的气体。液态烃类的价值一般较高
(
即烃类在原油内比在蒸气或天然气内的价值高
)
，即
使是伴生气用作制造液化天然气，或从气体内回收凝析油、销售气体，其价值也低于原油
。
A
second
possible
benefit
of
spiking
crude
oil
with
light
hydrocarbons
is
the
potential
for
increased
price
due
to
increased
API gravity. This increase is usually small,
however
—
less than one degree
API
—
and the price increase
is also
modest, about 10 cents/bbl per
°
API
increase.
用轻烃掺入原
油的另一好处是，由于
API
相对密度增加，可提高原油售价。
相对密度的增加一般很小，小于
1
0
API
，而价格也温和地增加。每增加
1
0
API
，每桶原油约增加
10
美分。
As
previously
discussed,
sour
crudes
do
contain
sulfur
compounds
in
general
and
hydrogen
sulfide
in
particular,
Stabilization must also remove the
volatile sulfur compounds to meet sales or
transport specifications.
如
前所述，酸性原油一般总含有硫化物，特别是含有
H
2
S
。稳定处理时也必须脱除挥发性硫化物，以满足销售
< br>和输送的技术要求。
The
economic
goal
of
stabilization
is
to
maximize
stock-tank
oil
recovery
while
meet
in
vapor
pressure
and
H
2
S
content specifications, as well as
BS&W. Butanes increase the vapor pressure of crude
oil considerably, since the true vapor
pressure of i-C
4
and n-C
4
are 72. 6 and 52.1
psia, respectively. Control of the butane content
controls the RVP and TVP
.
<
/p>
在满足蒸气压、
H
2
S
和固体悬浮物及水含量的技术要求下，使矿场储罐原油收率最高是原油稳定的经济
目的。
由于正、异丁烷的绝对真实蒸气压分别为
72. 6 p
si
和
52.1psi
，故丁烷对原油
蒸气压的增加有重要影响。控制丁烷含
量就控制了
RVP
和
TVP
。
The technical goal of
stabilization is to remove
C
1
,
C
2
,and
C
3
as completely as possible
while leaving the maximum
amounts of
C
4
(and
C
5
and heavier) in the crude
oil.
稳定的技术目的是尽可能地完全脱除
C1
，
C2
，和
C3
。并在原油内留下尽可能多的
C4
，（以及
C5
和重于
C5
的
组分）。
Crude
oil
can
be
stabilized
by
passing
it
through
a
series
of
flash
drums
or
vapor-liquid
separator
vessels
at
successively lower
pressures. Tray towers with reboilers ,
alternatively or in conjunction with separators,
are also used,
though less often.
让原油
通过一系列逐步降压的闪蒸罐或气一液分离器可以使原油稳定，
也可以使用带重沸器的板
式塔或采用
板式塔与分离器结合的方式使原油稳定，但使用较少。
Stabilization can also
sweeten the crude because the chief sulfur-
containing or sour contaminant, H2S, has a boiling
point of -76. 5 T-intermediate to that
of ethane and propane. Incidentally, dissolved
radon gas will also be removed with
the
light hydrocarbons. its boiling point is -79. 2
°
F. Radon radioactivity must
be considered very carefully.
< br>由于主要的含硫或酸性杂质为
H
2
S
，它的沸点为一
76. 5
°
F
，介于乙烷和丙烷之间，故稳定过程也使原油脱酸。
顺便提及，
氡的沸点为一
79. 2
0
F
，
在稳定过程中溶解在
原油中的氡气也会随轻烃一起从原油内脱除。
必须十分谨慎
地对
待氡的放射性。
So-
called sour crude oil contains
H
2
S and other sulfur-
containing compounds. Even small amounts of
H
2
S make the
crude oil extremely toxic and
corrosive. The other sulfur compounds are far less
toxic and not so aggressively corrosive,
even
though
some
have
equally
strong
odors.
The
presence
of
liquid
water
exacerbates
the
corrosion
a
s
does
CO
2
.
Personnel safety and equipment
protection require that H
2
S
and (to a lesser extent) other sulfur compounds be
removed.
所谓酸性原油，是指含有
H
2
S
和其他含硫化合物的原
油。即使含少量硫化氢，也使原油具有很强的毒性和腐蚀
性。尽管某些硫化物有与
H
2
S
相同的强烈气
味，但这些硫化物的毒性和腐蚀性远低于
H
2
< br>S
。与
CO
2
< br>类似，液态水的
存在也会激化腐蚀。从人员安全和设备防护的角度来看，应脱除<
/p>
H
2
S
，并在某
种程度上同时脱除其他硫化物。
1 .3 Treating Oil Field
Emulsions
1.
3
油田乳状液的处理
1 .3 .1 Theory o f Emulsions
1.3.1
乳状液理论
An emulsion is a
combination of two immiscible liquids, or liquids
that do not mix together under normal conditions.
One of the liquids is spread out, or
dispersed, throughout the other in the form of
small droplets. These droplets can be of
all sizes, from fairly large to very
small. Sometimes droplets are so small that more
than fifty of them could be placed on
the head of a pin. A stable emulsion is
an emulsion that w ill not break down without some
form of treating.
乳状液是两种不相溶
液体或在正常条件下不能混合在一起的多种液体的混合物。其中，一种液体以小液珠形式
完全分散于另一种液体内。这些液珠的粒径是各不相同的，从很大至非常细小。有时，液珠小至可在一枚大头针端
部放置
50
多个液珠。
Three conditions are
necessary for the formation of a stable emulsion.
稳定乳状液是一种不采用某种处理方法不能破乳的乳状液。形
成稳定乳状液必须具备三个条件
:
(1) The
liquids must be immiscible.
（
1
）各液体必须是互不相溶的
;
(2) There must be
sufficient agitation to disperse one liquid as
droplets in the other.
（
2
）需要有足够的搅动，使一种液体成为液珠分散于另一种液体内
;
(3) There must
be an emulsifying agent, or emulsifier, present.
（
3
）需要
有乳化剂。
To form a
stable emulsion of crude oil and water,an
emulsifying agent must be present. Emulsifying
agents commonly
found
in
petroleum
emulsions
include
asphalt;
resinous
substances;
oil
soluble
organic
acids;
and
other
finely
divided
materials that are
more soluble, wettable, or dispersable in oil than
in water. Some finely divided solids are iron,
zinc and
aluminum
sulfates,
calcium
carbonate,silica,and
iron
sulfide.
Each
of
these
emulsifiers
usually
occurs
as
a
film
on
the
surface of the dispersed droplets.
为形成原油和水的稳定乳状液，
必须
要有一种乳化剂。
在石油乳状液内发现的乳化刑通常包括沥青、
树脂物质、
油溶性有机酸以及那些更易溶解于油中、易为油所润湿或易在油中分散的细颗
粒物质。某些细颗粒固体为铁、锌和
硫酸铝、碳酸钙、硅和硫化铁。上述每种乳化剂一般
都会在分散液珠表面形成薄膜。
In an emulsion, the liquid that is
broken up into droplets is known as the
discontinuous, dispersed or internal phase.
The liquid that surrounds the droplets
is known as the continuous or external phase. An
emulsion of oil and water may
have
either oil or water as the dispersed phase,
depending on the characteristics of the
emulsifying agent, but in most
cases it
is the water that is dispersed as droplets in the
oil.
乳状液内破碎为液珠的液体称为一作连续相，也称
分散相或内相。液珠周围的液体称为连续相或外根据乳化剂
的性质，油水乳状液内油或水
均可成为分散相，但多数情况下水以水珠分散于油中。
An oil-water emulsion may contain from
a trace to 90 percent or more water. Also, an
emulsion may be tight ( difficult
to
break) or loose ( easy to break ). Whether an
emulsion is tight or loose depends on several
factors, which include the
properties
of
the
oil
and water,
the
percentage
of
each
found
in
the emulsion,
and
the
type
and
amount
of
emulsifier
present.
油水乳状液的水含量可从含微量水
(
痕迹
)
至
90
%
或
90%
以上
.
乳状液可能很牢固
(
难于破乳
)
，
也较疏松
(<
/p>
易于破乳
)
。
乳
状液破乳的难易取决于若干因素，包括油水性质、乳状液内油和水的百分含量、乳状液内乳化剂的类型和数量。<
/p>
Occasionally
emulsions produced from some fields are the
reverse type in which the oil is the internal
phase and is
dispersed as droplets in
water. Sometimes, but very rarely oil is produced
in a dual emulsion in which the dispersed phase
is droplets of oil-in water emulsion
and the external phase is oil.
些油田偶尔会产生反相型乳状液，即油为内相并呈油珠分散于水中。在极少数的情况下，原油以双重乳状
液采
出，分散相是水包油型乳状液，外相为油。
In water-in -oil emulsion,
there are two forces in direct opposition. One
force is the film of emulsifying agent that
surrounds the water droplets. This
force tends to prevent the droplets from merging
together to form larger drops, even
when the droplets collide. The other
force is the opposite tendency of water droplets
to join together to form larger drops.
The larger drops yield to the force of
gravity and settle out. Therefore. !o break down a
petroleum emulsion ,the properties
of
the emulsifying agent must be neutralized or
destroyed so that the droplets of water may unite.
Many procedures for
the neutralization
and destruction of the emulsifying agent have been
developed.
在油包水型乳状液内存在两种起相反
作用的力，一种力一与水珠周围的乳化剂薄膜有关，即使在水珠碰撞时，
它也有阻止水珠
合并而形成大水珠的趋势。另一种力是水珠有相互合并和形成大水珠的相反倾向。较大的水珠会在
重力作用下沉降出来，因而要破坏石油乳状液，就必须抑制或破坏乳化剂的性质，使水珠合并。已经开发
了许多抵
消和破坏乳化剂的方法。
1 .3 .2 The Major Reasons for
Dehydrating Crude Oil
1.3.2
原油脱水的主要原因
The
worldwide
crude
oil
production
of
about
60
million
bpd
is
accompanied
by
at
least
as
much
water.
In
old
fields,water-oil ratios greater than 10
are not uncommon. Therefore, it is not a surprise
that emulsion formation is the rule
rather than the exception. The salt
content of the produced brine may range from
practically zero to almost saturated. In
particular, dilute brines form
emulsions with crude oil that can be very
difficult to break (i. e. , resolve into separate
oil and
water phases).
世界原油产量约为
60
×
10
6
bpd
，伴随而产出的水量
至少不低于原油产量。在老油田，水油比超过
10
者并不罕
见。可见产生乳状液是正常现象，而非特例。产出盐水内的盐含量范围可能从零至几乎被盐饱
和。由稀盐水和原油
形成的乳状液很难破乳（即很难分离为油、水两相）。
The major reasons for dehydrating
and desalting crude oil are :
原油脱水脱盐的主要原因为：
(1) Crude oil purchasers specify
maximum permissible contents of sediments and
water, S&W, formerly called basic
sediment and water, BS&.W. Typically,
limits vary from 0. 1
—
3 wt.
:0. 1 % in cold climates, 0.5% in the Gulf coast
and Texas,
and 3% for low gravity
California crude.
（
< br>1
）原油买方规定了最大允许沉积物和水的含量
(S&W
)
，此含量以前被称为底部沉积物和水
(BS & W)
。典型的
限定范围为
0.1%-3%(
质量分数
)
，寒冷地区为
0. 1%,(
墨西哥
)
海湾地区
和得克萨斯州为
0.5%
，加利福尼亚州的低相对
密度原油为
3%
。
(2) Crude oil is bought and
sold on a
°
API gravity basis
and high-gravity oils command higher prices. Water
lowers
the
°
API
gravity and reduces the selling price of oil.
（
2
）买卖
原油以
0
API
相对密度为基准，
0
API
相对密度高的原油能得到较高的售
价。原油内的水降低了
0
API
相
对密度，因而降低了原油的售价。
(3) Shipping emulsified oil wastes
costly transportation capacities occupied by
valueless water ( i. e. , S&.W).
（
3
）由于无用的水占有体积，输送乳化原油浪费
了宝贵的输送能力。
(4)
The viscosity of crude oil increases as the water
content is increased. ( Adding 1 % more water (or
S&-W) typically
produces a 2 %
viscosity increase in a 30
°
API crude and a 4%
viscosity rise in a 15
°
API
crude.)
0
（
4
）
随着水含量增加，
原油
猫度增大。
API
相对密度为
30
的原油内多增加
1%
的水，
其黏度一般会增大
2%;
0
A
PI
相对密度为
15
的原油的黏度约增
大
4%
(5) Mineral sails present in oilfield
waters corrode production equipment, tank cars,
pipelines and storage tanks.
（
5
）油田水内存在矿物盐，会腐蚀生产设备、铁路油槽车
、管道和储罐。
(6)
Refining of water-bearing crude can cause severe
corrosion and plugging problems. Distillation of
crude containing
water-borne
inorganic
salts
contributes
to
corrosion
and
fouling
of
refining
equipment.
Under
some
circumstances
chlorides can
hydrolyze to HC1,which is extremely corrosive.
（
6
）炼制
含水原油会引起严重的腐蚀和堵塞问题。蒸馏乳化水内含无机盐类的原油将导致炼制设备的腐蚀和
污垢。在某些环境下，氯化物会水解为盐酸，它的腐蚀性极强。
1 .3 .3
Treating Methods
1 .3
.3
处理方法
Any
method
of
removing
water,
salt,
sand,
sediments
and
other
impurities
from
crude
oil
is
called
oil
treating.
Oil-treating
methods have one common goal, namely, to provide a
suitable environment for gravity to separate the
brine
from the crude.
从原油内脱除
水、盐、砂、沉积物和其他杂质的任何方法都被称为原油处理。各种原油处理方法具
有共
性，即为重力沉降提供良好氛围，使盐水从原油内分出。
The following are common treating
methods:
以下为常用的处理方法
:
(1)
Settling
or
providing
low
velocity
(
reduced
turbulence
and
increased
residence
time
to
allow
free
water
to
separate).
（
1
）沉降或提供较低流速（减少湍流，并
增加停留时间，允许分开游离水）。
(2) Degassing or separating the gas
from the liquid as it is released in the
production gas bubbles
severely impede
the settling of water drops. Many reports have
documented in detail the benefits of degassing
prior to
emulsion treating.
（
2
）当生产设备内产生气体时，应使
气体和液体分离
(
或称脱气
)
。上升的气泡会极力阻止水珠的沉降。许多报
道详细证明了在处理乳状液
前脱气的好处。
(3)
Chemical treating or adding emulsion breakers or
demulsifiers.
（
3
）化学处理或添加破乳剂。
(4) Washing or providing a continuous-
phase water wash.
（
< br>4
）水洗或提供连续相水洗。
(5) Heating to reduce oil viscosity and
accelerate separation.
（
5
）加热以降低油粘度和并加速分离。
(6) Electrical treating (i.
e ., applying AC and/or DC electric fields).
（
6
）电处
理（即，使用交流和
/
或直流电场）。
(7) Mechanical treating or
providing increased surface area to promote drop
coalescence.
（
7<
/p>
）机械处理或增大水珠的表面积，以促进液滴聚结。
In
addition
，
field treating can
accomplish mist elimination and removal of
sand
，
sludge, and
other solids. Of course
，
successful
treating
implies
that
the
crude
oil
meets
pipeline
or
refining
specifications
—
usually
0.
1%
~
1.0%
S&W.
In
addition
，
the treated brine or produced water
must be essentially oil-free to satisfy
environmental discharge regulations
(often 15
—
40
ppm) or to prevent reinjection problems such as
scale formation and/or reservoir plugging. Note
that the
oil-in-water environmental
regulation is far m ore severe than the water-in-
oil transport/sales specification.
此外，现场处理能除去液雾、砂、淤泥和其他杂质。显然，对乳状液的成功处理可使原油满足
管输或炼制
的规范—通常要求沉积物和水的质量分数为。
0.1
%-1.0%
。
另外，
处理后的盐水或
采出水必须基本上不含油以满足向
环境排放的规定
(
常为
15--40 ppm)
，
< br>或防止诸如生成水垢和
/
或堵塞油藏等采出水回注问题。
注意
:
水包油乳状液的环
境排放规定比油包水乳状液的管输
/
销售规范严格得
多。
1.
4 Overview of Gas-handling Facilities
1. 4
气体处理设备概论
The objective of a gas-
handling facility is to separate natural gas,
condensate, or oil and water from a gas-producing
well and condition these fluids for
sales or disposal. This volume focuses primarily
on conditioning natural gas for sales.
气体处理设备用于从气井井流中分离天然气、凝析液或油和水，并使这些流体符合销售或
排放的要求。本节重
点讨论如何使天然气的品质符合销售的要求。
Fig. 1-6 is a block
diagram of a production facility that is primarily
designed to handle gas wells. The well flow stream
may require heating prior to initial
separation. Since most gas wells flow at high
pressure, a choke is installed to control the
flow .
When
the
flow
stream
is
choked,
the
gas
expands
and
its
temperature
decreases.
If
the
temperature
gets
lo
w
enough,
hydrates (a solid crystalline - like
“
ice
”
，
matter) w ill form. This
could lead to plugging, so the gas may have to
be
heated
before
it
can
be
choked
to
separator
pressure.
Low-temperature
exchange
(
L
T
X
)
units
and
indirect
fired
heaters are commonly
used to keep the well stream from plugging with
hydrates.
图
1-6
所示为用于处理气井气的生产设备方框图。
在一级分离前井流可能需要加热。
由于多数气井的压力很高，
故用节流件来控制气体流量。
气体节流时其体积膨胀，
气体温度
下降。如果节流后气体温度太低，
将生成水合物
(
一
种固态晶体状的似“冰”物质
)
< br>。由于形成的水合物会引起堵塞，故气体节流至分离压力前可能需要加热。低温换热
装置
(LTX)
和间接式加热炉常用于防止井流被水合物堵塞
。
Gas transmission companies
require thatimpurities be removed from gasthe
purchase. They recognize the need for
removal for the efficient operation of
their pipelines and their customers gas-burning
equipment. Consequently, contracts
for
the sale of gas to transmission companies always
contain provisions regarding the quality of the
gas that is delivered to
them,and
periodic tests are made to ascertain that
requirements are being fulfilled by the seller.
输气公司要求购买的是除去杂质的气体，以使其输气管道及用
户的燃烧设备高效工作。因此，输气公司的购气
合同中总是包含对气体品质的规定，并进
行定期试验以确定卖方的气体是否满足对气体品质的要求。
Acid
gases,
usually
hydrogen
sulfide
(
H
2
S)
and
carbon
dioxide
(
CO
2
)
,are
impurities
that
are
frequently
found
in
natural gas and may have
to be removed. Both can be very corrosive, with
CO
2
forming carbonic acid in
the presence of
water
and
H
2
S
potentially
causing
hydrogen
embrittlement
of
steel.
In
addition,
H
2
S
is
extremely
toxic
at
very
low
concentrations. When the gas is
sold
，
the
purchaser specifies the maximum allowable
concentration of C()2 and H 2S. A
normal limit for CO 2 is between 2 and
4 volume percent, while H
2
S
is normally limited to 1/4 grain per 100 standard
cubic
feet (scf) or 4 ppm by volume.
酸气常指硫化氢
( H
2
S)
和二氧化碳
( CO
2
)
，是天然气内经常存在并
.
且必须脱除的杂质。这两种气体有很强的腐蚀
性，存在游离水时
CO
2
会生成碳酸，
而
H
2
S
则可
能引起钢的氢脆。此外，即使
H
2
S<
/p>
浓度很低
.
它也具有极强的毒性。
在气体销售时，
买方会规定
CO
2
和
H
2
< br>S
的最大允许浓度。
CO
2
的体积分数常限定在
2%--4%
，
H
2
S
常限定为
0.25 gr/100
scf
，或
H
2
S
的体积分数
小于
4/10
6
。
Another common impurity
of natural gas is nitrogen. Since nitrogen has
essentially no calorific value, it lowers the
heating value of gas. Gas purchasers
may set a minimum limit of heating value (normally
approximately 950 BTU/scf). In
some
cases it may be necessary to remove the nitrogen
to satisfy this requirement. This is done in very
low temperature
plants or with
permeable membranes.
氮气是天然气
内常见的另一种杂质。氮气本质上没有热值，但它会降低含氮天然气的热值。气体买方可规定气
< br>体的最低热值
(
常为
950
BTU/scf
)
有些情况下可能
必须脱氮，以满足对热值的要求。脱氮常在低温厂内进行，或用
渗滤膜脱氮。
Natural gas produced
from a well is usually saturated with water vapor.
Most gas treating processes also leave the gas
saturated with water vapor. The water
vapor itself is not objectionable, but the liquid
or solid phase of water that may
occur
when the gas is compressed or cooled is very
troublesome. Liquid water accelerates corrosion of
pipelines and other
equipment solid
hydrates that can form when liquid water is
present plug valves,
fittings
，
and sometimes the
pipeline
itself liquid water
accumulates in low points of
pipeline
，
reducing the
capacity of the lines. Removal of the water vapor
by
dehydration
eliminates
these
possible
difficulties
and
is
normally
required
by
gas
sales
agreements.
When
gas
is
dehydrated its dewpoint (the
temperature at which water will condense from the
gas) is lowered.
由气井生产的天然气常
被水蒸气所饱和。从多数气体处理工艺单元流出的气体也为水蒸气所饱和。水蒸气本身
无
害，但压缩或冷却气体时产生的液态积存在管道或固态水常给气体处理带来麻烦。液态水会加速管道和其他设备<
/p>
的腐蚀
;
存在液态水时可能生成水合物，
会堵塞阀、管件甚至管道
;
液态水积存在管道低洼处会降低管道
的输送能力。
气体销售合同中常要求脱去水蒸气，以消除上述可能发生的故障。气体脱水
后，其露点
(
气体内水凝析时的温度
)
降
低。
A typical dehydration specification in
the U. S. Gulf Coast is 7 lb of water vapor per
MMscf of gas (7 lb/MMscf). This
gives a
dew point of around 32
0
F
for 1 000 psi gas. In the northern areas of the
U.S. and Canada the gas contracts require
lower
dew
points
or
lower
water
vapor
concentrations
in
the
gas.
Water
vapor
concentrations
of
2
--
4
lb/MMscf
are
common. If the gas is to be processed
at very low temperatures, as in a cryogenic gas
plant ,water vapor removal down to
1
ppm may be required.
在美国海湾地
区，
典型的脱水技术规定为
7
1b/MMscf
，相当于
1000 psi
< br>压力下气体的露点约为
32
0
F
。在美国北
部地区和加拿大，气体合同中会要求更低的露点，或
要求气体内水蒸气浓度更低。水蒸气浓度常为
2--4 Ib/MMacf
。
若需要在很低的温度下加工气体，如需在气体深冷处理厂加工气体，则可能
需要将水蒸气脱至
1/10
6
以下。<
/p>
1 .5 The Trays
and Packing
1.5
塔板和填料
The number of actual equilibrium stages
determines the number of flashes that will occur.
The more stages, the more
complete
the
split
,
but
the
taller
and
more
costly
the
tower.
Most
condensate
stabilizers
will
normally
contain
approximately five
theoretical stages. In a refluxed tower, the
section above the feed is known as the
rectification section
，
while
the section below the feed is known as the
stripping section. The rectification section
normally contains about two
equilibrium
stages above the feed and the stripping section
normally contains three equilibrium stages.
真实平衡级数确定了发生闪蒸的次数。级数愈多，物料的分离
愈完善，但会使塔高增加，塔的投资增大。多数
凝析液稳定塔一般有
5
个理论级数。在带有回流的塔内，进料以上部分称精馏段，进料以下部分称提馏段
。进料板
以上的精馏段一般含
2
个平衡
级，而提馏段一般含
3
个平衡级。
Theoretical stages within a
tower are provided by actual stage devices
(typically either trays or packings). The actual
diameter and height of the tower can be
derived using manufacturer
’
s
data for the particular device. The height of the
tower
is a
function
of
the
number
of
theoretical
stages
and
of
the
efficiency
of
the
actual
stages.
The
diameter
of
the
tower is a function of the hydraulic
capacity of the actual stages.
塔内的理论级由真实级设备提供
(
一般为塔板或填料<
/p>
)
。参照制造商为特定装置提供的数据，可得到塔的真实直
径和塔高。塔高是理论级数和真实级效率的函数。塔的直径是真实级水力性能的函数。
1 .5 .1 Trays
1.5.1
塔板
For most trays, liquid
flows across an
“
active area
”
of the tray and then into a
“
downcomer
”
to the next tray
below, etc.
Inlet and/or outlet weirs control the liquid
distribution across the tray. Vapor flows up the
tower and passes
through
the
tray
active
area,
bubbling
up
through
(and
thus
contacting)
the
liquid
flowing
across
the
tray.
The
vapor
distribution is controlled by (1)
perforations in the tray deck (sieve trays), (2)
bubble caps (bubble cap trays), or (3) valves
(valve trays).
对
多数塔板来说，液体流过塔板的“活性面积”后，由降液管流至下一层塔板，并依此类推
.
人日和
/
或出口堰
< br>板控制着横向流经塔板的液体分布。蒸气沿塔向上流动并通过塔板的活性面积，它以鼓泡方式通过流经塔板 的液层
(
这样可使气液密切接触
)
。蒸气的分布由以下方法控制
:
在塔板上开
孔
(
筛板
);
泡罩
(
泡罩塔板
);
< br>阀
(
阀板
)
。
Trays
operate within a hydraulic envelope. At
excessively high vapor rates, liquid is carried
upward from one tray to
the
next
(essentially
back-mixing
the
liquid
phase
in
the
tower).
For
valve
trays
and
sieve
trays,
a
capacity
limit
can
be
reached at
low vapor rates when liquid falls through the tray
floor rather than being forced across the active
area into the
downcomers.
Because
the
liquid
does
not
flow
across
the
trays,
it
misses
contact
with
the
vapor,
and
the
separation
efficiency drops
dramatically.
塔板在水力包络线内工作。<
/p>
蒸气流量过大会将液体从下层塔板带至上层塔板
(
液相在塔内返混
)
。
对阀板和
筛板，
在蒸气流量过低时会达到板的工作下限，此时液体不再横向流经活性面积进人降液
管，而是通过板底向下滴漏。由
于液体没有横向流过塔板，液体与蒸气没有接触，所以使
分离效率大大下降。
Trays
are
generally
divided
into
four
categories
：
sieve
trays,
valve
trays,
bubble
cap
trays,
and
high
capacity/high
efficiency
trays.
塔板一般分为四类：筛塔板、阀板、泡罩塔板
、高处理量
/
高效率塔板。
1. 5. 1.1 Sieve Trays
1. 5.
1.1
筛塔板
Sieve trays are the least expensive
tray option. In sieve trays, vapor flowing up
through the tower contacts the liquid
by passing through small perforations
in the tray floor ( Fig. l-7b). Sieve trays rely
on vapor velocity to exclude liquid from
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