-
英语国家概况复习笔记
Chapter 1
Land and People
英国的国土与人民
Different Names for Britain and its
Parts
英国的不同名称及其各组成部分
1
.
Geographical
names
: the British Isles, Great Britain
and England.
地理名称
:
不列颠群岛
,
大不列颠和英格兰
.
2
.
Official
name
: the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland.
官方正式名称
:
大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国
.
3
.The British Isles are
made up of
two large
islands
—
Great
Britain
(the larger one) and
Ireland
, and
hundreds of small ones
.
不列颠群岛由两个大岛[大不列颠岛(较大的一个)和爱尔兰岛]及成千上万个小岛组成
.
4
.Three
political divisions
on the
island of Great Britain:
England
,
Scotland
and
Wales
.
大不列颠岛上有三个政区
:
英格兰
,
苏格兰和威尔士
.
①
England is in the southern
part of Great is the largest, most populous
section.
位于大不列颠岛南部
,
是最大
,
人口最稠密的地区
.
②
Scotland
is
in
the
north
of
Great
Britain.
It
has
three
natural
zones
(the
Highlands
in
the
north;
the
Central
lowlands;
the
south
Uplands)
Capital:
Edinburgh.
苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部
.
它有三大自然区:北部高地
,
< br>中部低地及南部山陵
.
首府:爱丁堡
.
③
Wales is in the west of
Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff
威尔士位于大不列颠的西部
.
首府:加的夫
④
Northern Ireland is
the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast.
北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域
.
首府:贝尔法斯特
5.
The
Commonwealth (of nations)
is
a free association of independent countries that
were once colonies of nations are joined together
economically and have certain trading
Commonwealth has no special decision to become a
member of the Commonwealth is
left to
each nation. It was founded in 1931, and has 50
member countries until 1991.
英联邦是一个自由联合体
,
由曾是英国殖民地而现在已经独立的
国家构成
.
成员国之间实行经济合作
,
有一定的贸易协议
.
英联邦没有特别的
权利
,
是否参加英联邦由各成员国自己决定
.
它成立于
1931
年
,
到
1991
年止已有<
/p>
50
个成员国
.
Chapter 2
The
Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066)
英国的起源
l
and
settlement
of
the
Celts
At
about
700
BC
the
Celts
began
to
arrive
in
Britain
and
kept
coming
until
the
arrival
of
the
may come originally from eastern and
central Europe,now
France
,
p>
Belgium
and
southern Germany
.
约公元前
700
年
,
< br>凯尔特人来到不列颠
岛并一直陆续到来直到罗马人的入侵
.
他们可能源自东欧和中欧
,
即现在的
法国
,
比利时和德国南部
.
They
came
in
three
main
waves:the
Gaels
~about
600
BC
;the
Brythons
~about
400 BC
;the
Belgae
~about
150
BC
.
凯尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮
:
第一次是约公元前
600
年的盖尔人
;
第
二次是约公元前
< br>400
年的布立吞人
;
第三次是
约公元前
150
年的贝尔盖人
.
The Celtic tribes are the ancestors of
the
Highland Scots
,the
Irish
and
the
Welsh
,and their languages
are the basis of both
Welsh
and
Gaelic
.
凯尔特人是山
地苏格兰人
,
爱尔兰人和威尔士人的祖先
,
他们的语言是威尔士语
和盖尔语的基础
.
The Celts’
religion was
Druidism
.
凯尔特人的宗教为德鲁伊德教
.
The
Belgae
were the most
industrious
and
vigorous
of the
Celtic tribes.
贝尔盖人是最勤奋
,
最精力充沛的
. The Celts were
practised
farmers
.
凯尔特人是有经验的农民
.
of
modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons
现代
英国人的基础
:
盎格鲁
—
萨克逊
(446-871)
In the mid-5
th
century
Jutes
,
Saxons
,
and
Angles
came
to
were
three
Teutonic
Jutes,who
fished
and
farmed
in
Jutland(now
southern
Denmark
),came
to
Britain
the Saxons came
from
northern
Germany
,established their kingdoms in
Essex
,
Sussex
and
Wessex
. In the second half
of the
6
th
century,the
Angles
who
also
came
from
northern
Germany
and
were
to
give
their
name
to
the
English
people
,
settled
in
East
Anglia
,
Mercia
and
Northumbria
.
五世纪中
叶
,
朱特人
,
撒克逊人和盎格鲁人来到不列颠岛
.
这是三支日耳曼部落
.
居住在朱特兰岛
(
现丹麦南部
)
从事打渔农耕的朱特人
先
到达不列颠
;
接着是撒克逊人
,
他们来自德国北部
,
在埃塞克斯
,
苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国
;
六世纪后半叶
,
同样来自德国北部把自己名字给
了英国人的盎格鲁人
,
在东盎格利亚
,
麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居
.
Heptarchy
:During
the
Anglo-
Saxon’s
time,Britain
was
divided
into
many
kin
gdoms,among
which
there
were
seven
principal
kingdoms
of
Kent,Essex,Sussex,Wessex,East
Anglia,Mercia and were given the name for
Heptarchy.
在盎格鲁
-
撒
克逊时期
,
英国被划分为许多
王国
p>
,
其中有七个主要王国
:
< br>肯特
,
埃塞克斯
,
苏塞克斯
,
威塞克斯
,
p>
东盎格利亚
,
麦西亚和诺森伯利来
.
他们被合称为七王国
.
The Anglo-Saxon tribes were
constantly at war with one
another
,each trying to get the upper
hand,so that the kingdoms were often broken up and
often
pieced together again.
盎格鲁
-
撒克逊部落之间不断交战
,
彼此都想占上风
,
因此王国总是分了合
,
合了又分
The Anglo-Saxons
brought
their own Teutonic religion to Britain
.
盎格鲁
—
撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了
英国
.
Although
the
Anglo-Saxons
were
ferocious
people,they
laid
the
foundations
of
the
English
y,they
divided
the
country
into
shires
;Secondly,they devised
the
narrow-strip,three-field farming
system
which continued to the 18th
century;Thirdly,they also established the
manorial
y,they
created the
Witan
(
council/meeting of wisemen
)to advise
the king,the basis of the Privy Council which
still exists today.
虽然盎格鲁
-
p>
撒克逊人是凶猛的民族
,
但他们为英国国家
的形成打下了基础
.
首先他们把国家划分为郡
< br>;
其次他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至
18
世纪
;
他们
还建立了采
邑制
;
最后他们还创立了议会
(
贤人会议
),
向国王提供建议
,
这是现存的枢密院的基础
.
Viking
and
Danish
invasions
The
Norwegian
Vikings
and
the
Danes
attacked
various
parts
of
England
from
the
end
of
the
8
th
Danes gained control of the north and east of
England
—
the
Danel
aw
.
从
8
世
纪末起
,
挪威海盗和丹麦人就不断袭击英格兰各地方
.
丹麦人
控制英格兰北部和东部丹麦法区
.
After
Alfred’s death,his successors reconquered the
Ethelred the Unready tried paying the invaders
to stay the Dane
s didn’t go
away but invade again.
亚尔弗雷德死后
,
他的继任者们重新征服了丹麦地区
.
未准备好者
埃塞尔雷德国王进
贡给
丹麦人以免被侵略
,
但丹麦人又再度进犯
.
After
Ethelred’s
death,Canute,the
Danish
leader
was
made
English
king
in
proved
to
be
a
wise his death in 1035,his sons
Harold
and
Hardicanute
reigned Hardicanute’s death the
succession passed to the successor
Edward
the
Confessor
.
埃塞尔雷德死
后
,
丹麦首领喀奴特在
1016
年成为了英国国王
.
他是位英明的通知者
p>
.1035
年他死后
,
他的儿子哈罗德和哈迪
喀奴特先后统治王国
.
哈迪喀奴特死后
,
王位传给了
忏悔者
爱德华
.
Alfred and his contributions
亚尔弗雷德国王和他所做出的贡献
(849-899)
①
Alfred was the
king of Wessex
and defeated
the Danes
and
reached
a
friendly
agreement
with
them
in
879
亚尔弗雷德是威塞克斯的国王
.
他打败了丹麦人
p>
,
并于公元
879
年与他们达成了友好协议
;
②
He
founded a strong
fleet
and is
known as “
the
father of the
British navy
”
他因为建立了强大舰队
,
而以
“
英国海军之父<
/p>
”
闻名于世
;
③
He
reorganized
the
Saxon army
,making it
more efficient
他改组了撒克逊军队
,
使之更为高效
;
④
p>
He is said to have taught himself
Latin
and
translated
a Latin book into
English
据说他自学了拉丁语并将一本拉丁语书译成英语
⑤
He encouraged learning in
others,
established schools
and formulated a
legal
system
.
All
this
earns him the title
“
Alfred
the Great
”
他鼓励向他人求知并修建学校
,
并且制订法律制度
.
1
Norman
Conquest and its
consequences
诺曼征服及其影响
(1066)
It was said
that king Edward had promised the English throne
to
William, but the Witan chose Harold
as king. So
William
led his
army to invade England. In October
1066
, William
defeated Harold
in the
battle of
Hastings
.On Christmas Day
William was crowned king of England in
Westminster Abbey
.
据说爱德华国王曾答应把英格兰王位传给诺曼底公爵威廉
,
但是贤人会议挑选了哈罗德为国王
.
公元
1066
年
10
月
< br>,
在哈斯丁斯战役中威廉打败了哈罗德军队
.
圣诞节这天在威斯敏斯特大教堂
,
威廉被加冕为<
/p>
英格兰国王
.
The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps
the best-known event in English history. William
the
Conqueror
confiscated almost all
the
land
and
gave
it
to
his
Norman
followers.
He
replaced
the
weak
Saxon
rule
with
a
strong
Norman
Norman
Conquest
ended
the
English history of being
invaded, the
feudal system
was completely established in England . Relations
with the Continent were opened, and civilization
and
commerce
were
extended.
Norman-French
culture,
language,
manners
and
architecture
were
Church
was
brought
into
closer
connection with Rome,
and the church courts were separated from the
civil courts.
公元
1066
年的诺曼征服也许是英国历史上的最著名事件
.
征服者
威廉没收了几乎所有土地
,
将其分发给他的诺曼追随者
.
他用强大的诺曼政府
取代软弱的撒克逊人统治
.
诺曼征服结束了被侵略的英国历史<
/p>
,
英格
兰完全确立了封建制度
:
扩展了与欧洲大陆的关系
;
文明和商业都得到发展
;
引进了诺曼
—
法国文化、
语言、
举止和建筑
p>
.
教会与罗马的联系更为密
切
,
教会法庭从世俗法庭中单独分离出来
.
Chapter 3
The Shaping of the Nation
<
/p>
英国的形成(公元
1066-1381
)
d's feudalism under the
rule of William the
Conqueror
在威廉统治下的英国封建制度
①
Under
William
,the feudal system
in England was completely established
p>
在威廉统治下
,
英国的封建制度得到完全确
立
;
②
In this
system,the King owned all the land personally
根据此制
度
,
国王拥有全
国所有土地
;
③
William
gave his barons large est
ates in
England in return for a promise of military
service and a proportion of the land’s
produce
威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族
,
条件是贵族保证服役和交租
;
④
These estates were scattered far and wide over the country,so that those who
held them
could not easily combine to rebel the king
< br>贵族的这些地产分散于各处
,
这样土地拥有者就不易联合
起来反叛国王
;
⑤
The
barons parceled
out his land to the
lesser nobles,knights and freemen,also in return
for goods and services
贵族又把土地分配给小贵族
,
骑士和自由民
,
同样要
他们交租
和服役
;
⑥
< br>At the
bottom
of the
feudal scale were the
villeins
or
serfs
在封建等级底层的是农奴
;
⑦
One peculiar feature of the feudal system
of England
was that all landowners must
take the oath of allegiance,not only to their
immediate lord,but also to the king
英国封建
制独有的特色就是
,
无论是土地承
租人
还是二佃户
,
都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主
,
而且要效忠于国王
.
William
replaced
the
Witan
with
the
Grand Council
.
威廉用大议会取代了贤人会议
.
In order to have a reliable
record of all his lands,his tenants
and
their possessions,William sent his clerks to
compile a property record known as Domesday
Book,which was completed in
1086
.
为了使所有的土地
,
佃户和他们的财产记录可靠
,
威廉派官员编了一本财产清册
,
称为
?
末日审判书
?
ts and the significance of the Great Ch
arter?
大宪章
?
的内容及意义<
/p>
Also
known as the Magna Carta,Great Charter was signed
by
King
John
in
1215
under the press of the
barons.?
大宪章
?
是约翰国王
1215
年在封建贵族压力下签定的
.
It consists of 63 clauses. Its important
provisions
are
as
follows?
大宪章
?
共有
63
条
:
①
no
tax
should
be
made
without
the
approval
of
the
Grand
Council
没有大议
会批准不得征税
;
②
no
freeman should be
arrested,imprisoned,or deprived of his property
except by the law of the land
除依照法律
,
不得随意逮捕
,
拘禁自
由民
,
不依照土地法
不得剥夺其财产<
/p>
;
③
the
Church
should
possess
all
its
rights,together
with
freedom
of
electi
ons
教会拥有的权利和选举自由不受侵犯
;
< br>④
London
and
other
towns
should
retain
their
ancient
rights
and
privil
eges
伦敦和其它城市应保留其古老的权利和特权
;
⑤
there
should
be
the
same
weight
and
measures
throughout
the
country
全国应统一度量衡
.
Although
the
Great
Charter
has
long
been
popularly
regarded
as
the
foundation
of
English
liberties
,it
was
a
statement
of
the
feudal
and
legal
relationship
between
the
Crown
and
the
barons,a
guarantee
of
the
freedom
of
the
Church
and
a
limitation of the powers of the
king.
The
spirit
of the Great Charter was the limitation of the
powers of the king,keeping them within the bounds
of the
feudal law of the land.
尽管长期普遍认为
?
大宪章
?
p>
是英国自由的基础
,
但它只是国王与贵族之
间的封建与法律关系
,
保证教会的自由
,
限制国王的权
力
.?
大宪章
?
的精神是限制王权
,
置王权于封建法律的约束下
.
origins of the English
Parliament
英国议会的起源
In
1258,the barons,under
Simon de
Montfort
,forced Henry
Ⅲ
and his son
Prince
Edward to swear to accept the
Provisions of
Oxford
.Later,Henry refused to confirm
to the Provisions of Oxford,thus a civil war brake
out between the
king’s supporters and
the baronial army led by Simon de Montfort.
1258
年
,
贵族们在西蒙
?
德
< br>?
孟福尔的领导下迫使国王和他的儿子爱德华王子宣
誓接
受
牛津协定
亨
利拒绝批准牛津协定
,
国王的支持者和西蒙
?
德
?
孟福尔领导的封建主组成的
军队之间爆发了内战
.
The Great Council
is known to be the prototype of the current
British Parliament. In 1265,Simon de Montfort
summoned the
Great
Council
,together
with
two
knights
from
each
country
and
two
citizens
from
each
town
.,a
meeting
which
has
seen as
the
earliest
parliament
.It
later
developed
into the
House of Lords and
the House of Common as a parliament.
大议
会是当今英国议会的原型
.1265
年
,
西门德孟福尔召开大议会
,
各县有两
名骑士
,
各镇
有两名市民参加
,
此次会议被看作是最早的议会
.
大议会发展到后来演变成议会
.
分为上议院和下议院
Its main role was to offer
advice,not to make were still no elections,no
parties,and the most important part of Parliament
was the House
of Lords.
其作用是
咨询而非决定
,
也没有选举和政党
.<
/p>
议会的最重要的部分是上议院
Hundred Years' War with France and its
consequences
百年战争及其结果
When Edward III claimed the French
Crown but the
French refused to
recognize,the war
broke out.
爱德华三世宣布要继承法国王位
,
但法
国人民拒绝承认
,
于是引发了百年战争
.
The Hundred
Years
’
War with France
refers to the war between England and France that
lasted
intermittently
from 1337 to 1453
.The causes
of the war were partly territorial
and
partly economic. The territorial causes were
related with the possession by the English kings
of the large duchy of Aquitaine,while the French
kings
coveted this large slice. The
economic causes were connected with cloth
manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the
importer of English wool, but
they were
loyal to the French king politically. Besides,
England's desire to stop France from giving aid to
Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were
the other causes.
百年战争指
1337
年到
1453
年英法之间一
场断断续续的战争
.
战争的起因既有领土因素又有经济因素
p>
.
领土起因尤其是与英国
国王拥有法国阿奎
丹大片的公爵领地有密切关系
,
随着法国国王势力日增
,
他们日益渴望占领这片从他们领土内被分割出去的土地
.
经济原因则
与弗兰德斯有关
.
弗兰德斯地区生产棉布的城镇是英国羊毛的主要进口地
,
p>
但这些城镇在政治上却效忠法国国王
.
其他
原因还有英国试图阻止法
国帮助苏格兰人
,
以及不断觉醒的民族意识
.
When the war
ended,
Calais
was the only
part of France that still in the hands of English.
战争结束的
时候只有加来港还被英军
占领
.
Consequences
:
The
expulsion
of
the
English
from
France
is
regarded
as
a
blessing
for
both
countries
:had
they
remained,the superior
size and wealth of France would certainly have
hindered the development of a separate English
national identity,while France was
hindered so long as a foreign power
occupied so much French territory.
战争的结果
:
把英国人赶出了法国对两个国家
都是幸事
:
若英国人继续留在
法国
p>
,
那么法国人在领土和财富上所占的优势必然会阻碍英国作为一个独
立民族的发展
;
而法国如被外国势力占领了大量的领土
,
其民族特性的
发展也要长期受阻
.
2
Henry
Ⅴ
renewed
the
war
in
1415
and
won
a
crushing
victory
at
Argencourt
.He
was
recognized
to
the
French
throne
in
his
death,the
French,encouraged by
Joan of
Arc
,finally drove the English out of
France.
亨利五世在
141
5
年重新发动战争
.
在阿根科特战役中
大胜
.
他在
1420
< br>年
成为法国国王
.
亨利死后
p>
,
法国人民在圣女贞德的鼓舞下
,
最终把英军驱逐出法国
.
uences of
the Black Death
黑死病的影响
The Black Death was the
modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease
spread by rat
fleas
across
Europe
in
the
14
th
century
.It
swept
through
England
in
the
summer
of
1348
without
warning
and,most
importantly,without
any
reduced England’s
population from
four million to two
million
(
about one half and
one third of the population
was killed)
by the end of the 14
th
century.
黑死病是现代名称
,
指老鼠身上的跳蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫引起的传染性疾病
.14
世纪传播了到欧洲
.1348
年夏天横扫全英国
,
事先毫无预兆
,<
/p>
而更重要的是无药可救
.
英国的人口在<
/p>
14
世纪末从
400
万锐减至
200
万
.
The
economic consequences of the Black Death were a
result
of
the
plague,much
land
was
left
untended
and
there
was
a
terrible
shortage
of
ners
tended
to
change
from
arable
to
sheep-farming,which required less
surviving peasants had better bargainning power
and were in a position to change their serfdom
into paid
some landlords,unable or
unwilling to pay higher wages,tried to force
peasants back into 1351 the government issued a
Statute of
Labourers which made it a
crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for
their employers to pay more than the rates laid
down by the Justices of the
Peace.
黑死病对经济造成的后果更为深远
.
鼠疫导致了大片土地无人照管和劳动力极度匮乏
.
地主只得把耕地改成对人力需求较少的牧场
.
幸存<
/p>
的农民处于有利的可以讨价还价的地位
,
他们从农奴变为雇佣劳动力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付较高工资的地主想方设法迫使农民重返
农奴地位。
1351
年政府颁布
“
劳工法令
”
,规定农民们涨工资
的要求,或者是雇主支付比地方官制订的工资水平要高的工资都是犯罪
.
Chapter 4
Transition to the Modern Age
向现代英国的过渡
(1455-1688)
1
.The nature and
consequences of the Wars of the
Roses
玫瑰战争
The
name Wars of the Roses was, in fact, coined by a
19
th
century
novelist
Sir Walter
Scott
.This was a war between
the rich and ambitious
nobles
.
玫瑰战争这个词是
1
9
世纪的大作家瓦尔特
?
斯考特创造的
.
这是一场
富人和野心勃勃的贵族之间
的战争
.
It was referred to these battles
between the great
House of
Lancaster
, symbolized by the
red
rose, and that of
York
, symbolized by the
white
,
from 1455
to 1485
.Although the Wars of the Roses
were waged intermittently for thirty
years,ordinary people were little
affec
ted.
Feudalism
received its death
blow
.
No less than
80
nobles of royal blood were killed in
the great medieval nobility was much weakened
and king’s power became
supreme.
它
是指从
1455
年到
1485
年
,
以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特大家族和以白玫瑰为象征的约克
家族
之间战争
.
虽然玫瑰战争断断续续
进行了
30
年
,
但普通民众所受影响甚微
.
封建制度却遭受了致命打击
,
不少于
80
位皇室
血统的贵族阵亡
.
中世纪
的贵族势力被
大大削弱
,
名誉扫地
.
至此
,
国王的权利变得至高无上
.
After the wars,king Henry Tudor
replaced king Richard
Ⅲ
to rule England.
玫瑰战争后
,
亨利
?
都铎取代了理查德三世统治英国
.
Ⅷ
and the English
Reformation
亨利八世和英国的宗教改革
Henry
Ⅷ
was above all responsible for the
religious reform of
the
Church
亨利八世是宗教改革的最重要的责任者
.There were 3 main
causes
:
①
a desire
for change and reform in the Church had been
growing for
many years and
now,encouraged by the success of Martin
Luther,many people believed its time had come
期望教会改革已有多年
,
现在又受马丁
?
路德
成功的鼓舞
,
p>
许多人认为时机已到
;
②
< br>the privilege and wealth of the clergy were also resented
人们痛恨教职人员的特权和财富
;
③
Henry needs
money
亨利需要钱
.
The
reform began as a struggle for a
divorce
and ended in
freedom
from the Papacy.
Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of
Aragon because she could not produce a
male heir for the Pope refused to annul his
marriage.
Henry’s reforms
was
to get rid of the English
Church’s
connection with the Pop
e, and to make
an
independent
Church of England
. He made
this break with Rome gradually
between
1529 and 1534
.
He dissolved
all of England’s
monasteries
and
nunneries
because they
were more loyal to the Pope than to their English
kings,and past two laws as
the
Act of succession of 1534
and
the Act of Supremacy of
1535
made his reform possible. He
established the church of England as the national
church of the
country, and he made
himself the supreme head of the church of England.
改革以争取离婚而开始
,
以脱离教皇而告终
.
亨利八世想与阿拉贡的凯瑟<
/p>
琳离婚因为她没有生下男嗣
,
但是教皇拒
绝了
.
亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系
,
成立独立的英格兰教会
.1529
年至
1534
年间逐渐地
与
罗马脱离了关系
.
他解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院
,
因为后者对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚
.153
4
年的《继位法》和
1535
年的《至
尊法案》
使改革具有了可行性
.1535
年他获
“
英格兰教会最高首脑
”
p>
之称号
.
The English Reformation had 3 important
effects:They stressed the power of the
mo
narch and certainly
strengthened Henry’s position; Parliament had
never done such a long and important piece of work
before,
its importance grew as
a result. His attack on the Pope’s
power encouraged many critics of abuses of the
Catholic Church. England w
as moving
away form Catholicism towards
protestaintism.
改革的三大影响
:
亨利的改革强调了君主权力
< br>,
自然加强了亨利的地位
;
议会
以往从未做过如此漫长而重要的工作
,
自然其重要性
也有所加强
;
他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批评
指责天主教会
,
并希望从天主教转向新教
.
eth
I
and
Parliament
伊莉莎白一世和国会
Generally
speaking,Elizabeth
was
able
to
work
with
Parliament,but
the
relationship
with
Parliament was often
turbulent
.Parliament wished
its customary right of
free
speech
confirmed in writing;and it
wanted to be allowed to
start
discussion
of important questions at
will
,not by eth would not permit either
eth treated 5 questions as personal and were
her
religion
,her
marriage
,her
foreign policy
,the
succession to the throne
and
her
finance
.
伊丽莎白
能与议会合作
,
但与议会的关系经常动荡不安
< br>.
议会
希望以书面形式确认议会按惯例已享有的言论自由
,
也希望能随意地讨论重大问题
,
p>
而无需经过女王邀请
.
伊丽莎白一件也未批
准
.
伊丽莎白把五
个问题看作是个人问
题
,
那就是她的宗教
,
婚姻
,
对外政策
,
王位的继承和财产
.
eth's
religious reform and her foreign
policy
伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策
Elizabeth's religious reform was a
compromise
of views. She broke Mary's
ties with Rome and restored her father's
independent Church of England, i.e.
keeping to Catholic doctrines and
practices but
to be free of the Papal
control
.Her religious settlement was
unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known
as Puritans and to ardent Catholics.
<
/p>
伊
丽莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协
.
她中断了玛丽女王与罗马建立的关系
,
恢复了她父亲建立的独立的英格兰教会也就是说她保持天主教的教
条及做法
,
但不受教皇控制
.
她的宗
教和解既不被极端的清教徒所接受
,
也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接
受
.
For nearly 30 years Elizabeth
successfully
played off against each
other the two great Catholic powers, France and
Spain, and prevented England from
getting involved in any
major European
conflict.
Through her marriage alliances which were never
materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a
friendly relationship with France. So England
wad able to face the danger from
1588
,the English navy
defeated the
Spanish
Armada
.The destruction of the Spanish
Armada showed England’
superiority as a
naval power
.
p>
近
30
年的时间
,
伊莉莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相斗杀
,
p>
从而免于英国卷入任何主要的欧洲国的
冲突
.
通过她从未具体化的联姻
,
伊莉莎白
设法与法国维持友好关系
,
因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险<
/p>
.1588
年
,
英国海军击败了西班牙舰队
.
西班
牙无
敌舰队的灭亡表明了英国作为海上强国的优势
.
ctive
features
of
the
English
Renai
ssance
英国文艺复兴的特点
In
England,the
Renaissance
began
in
1485
and
it
had
5
characteristics
英国的文艺复兴起始与
1485
年
.<
/p>
五个特点
:
①
E
nglish
culture
was
revitalized
not
so
much
directly
by
the
classics
as
by
contemporary
3
Europeans under the influence of the cl
assics
英国文化的复兴不全是直接接受古典文化的影响
,
而更多的是受当时有文艺复兴思想的欧洲人的影响
;
②
England
as
an
insular
country
followed
a
course
of
social
and
political
history
which
was
to
a
great
extent
independent
of
the
course
of
history
elsewhere in Europe<
/p>
作为岛国
,
英国的社会和政治历史进程在
很大程度上独立于欧洲其它国家
;
③
O
wing to the great genius of the 14th century poet
Chaucer, the native literature was
sufficiently vigorous and experienced in
assimilating for foreign influences without being
subjected by them.
由于
14
世
纪伟大的天才诗人乔叟的出现
,
< br>英国本土文学相当有生气
,
善于融合外来影响而未被同化
;
④
English
Renaissance’s
literature
is
primarily
artistic,rather than philosophical and
scholarly.
⑤
The Renaissance
coincided with the Reformation in England
英国文艺复兴文学首先是艺术的
,
其次才
< br>是哲学的和学术的
⑤
文艺复兴与英国宗教改革同时发生<
/p>
.
Civil Wars and their
consequences
内战及其影响
Because of the absolute rule of
Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and
the Parliament developed into the civil
war began on August 22,1642 and ended in 1651.
Charles I was condemned to death.
由于查尔斯的
“
君权神授
”
统治权
,
他与议会的对峙发展成了
内战战争开始于
1642
年
8
月
22
日
,
结束于
1651
年
.
p>
最后查尔斯被处死
In
1642
,the
first
English
Civil
War
began
between
King
Charles
and
Parliament
.The
king's
men
were
called
Cavaliers
,and
the
supporters
of
Parliament were called
Roundheads
because of their
short haircuts.
1642
年
,
查尔斯一世和议会之间的第一次内战开始
< br>.
国王的支持者被称为
骑
士派
支持议会者因为留短发被称为
圆颅派
The English Civil War is also called
the
Puritan
Revolution
,because the king's opponents
were mainly Puritans,and his supporters chiefly
Episcopalian
and
Catholic
.It has been seen as
a conflict between the parliament and the King,but
also a conflict between the economic interests of
the urban middle
classes and the
traditional economic interests of the economic
interests of the urban middle classes coincided
with their religious ( Puritan)
ideology
while
the
Crown’s
traditional
economic
interests
correspondingly
allied
with
Anglican
religious
belief.
The
English
Civil
War
not
only
overthrew feudal system in
England
but also
shook the
foundation of the feudal rule in
Europe
. It is generally regarded
as the beginning of modern world
history
.
英国内战又称为清教徒革命
.
因为国王的敌人主要是清教徒
,
而支持者主要是天主教派成员和天主教徒
.
这是议
会和国王间的冲突
,
也是
城市中产阶级
的经济利益与皇室传统经济利益之间的冲突
.
城市中产阶级经济
利益刚好与他们的宗教
(
清教
)
思想吻合
.
相应地
,
皇室传统的经济利
益则与圣公会教的宗教信仰结合在一起
.
英国内战不仅推翻了英国的封建制度
,
p>
而且动摇了欧洲封建统治的基础
.
英国内战
通常被看作是现代世
界史的开端
.
Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell
From 1649 to
1658
England was called a
was ruled first by Oliver
Cromwell as
Lord Protector
(in 1653,he
became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of Engla
nd).
从
1649
年到
1658
年
,
英国被称为共
和国
.
由奥利弗
?
克
伦威尔护国主统治
(1653
年
他成为英格兰共和国的护国主
).
One
of
Cromwell's
first
acts
was
to
crush
without
mercy
a
rebellion
in
Ireland
,killing
all
the
inhabitants
of
the
towns
of
Drogheda
and
r
was
the
suppression
of
the
Levellers
,
proposed
a
radical
political
programme not at all to his taste.
克伦威尔的举措之一就是毫不留情地镇压爱尔兰的起义
,
< br>杀死了德洛莎达和威克斯福两镇的所有居民
.
另一举措是
镇压平均派
,
原因是他们提出的激进政
治方案不合克伦威尔的口味
.
Other
aspects
of
this
period
were:
establishment
of
colonies
and
colonial trade,religious toleration for
all,and greater understanding of the economy.
这时期其他方面的特点是
:
建立殖民地和进行殖民
贸易
;
容忍所有
宗教
< br>;
对经济更加了解
.
Restoration and the Glorious
Revolution
复辟和光荣革命
The Parliament elected in 1660 resolved
the crisis by asking the late
King's
son
to
return
from
his
exile
in
France
as
King
Charles
II
.The
Restoration,
as
it
was
called,was
relatively
smooth,and
although
not
a
perfect
king,Charles II was
able to capitalize on government goodwill towards
n prospered under Charles.
1660
年选出的议会要求上一任国
王的
儿子从长期流亡地法国回国作国王
,
称查尔斯二世
,
从而解决了危机
.<
/p>
所谓的王朝复辟相对顺利
.
尽管查尔斯二
世不是完美国王
,
但他却能利用政府
对
他的善意
.
在查尔斯的统治下英国繁荣发展
.
In 1685
Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother
James II
. James was brought
up in exile in Europe, was a hoped to rule
without
giving up his personal
religious England was no more tolerant of a
Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years the English
politicians rejected
James II,and
appealed to a Protestant king
William
of Orange
,James's Dutch nephew and the
husband of Mary,James's daughter,to invade and
take the
English m landed at Torbay in
1688 and marched upon England this takeover was
relatively smooth,with no bloodshed,nor any
execution of the became known as the
Glorious Revolution.
1685
年查尔斯二世去世
,
由其弟詹姆斯二世继位
.
詹姆斯二世从小在欧洲流
亡长大
,
是个天主教徒
.
他希望不放弃个人宗教信仰统治国家
.
但是
1688
的英国已不象
40
p>
年前那样能容忍天主教徒当国王了
.
英国政
客反对詹姆斯
二世
,
他们呼吁信奉新教
的国王奥兰治亲王威廉入侵英国夺取王位
,
威廉是詹姆斯的荷兰
侄子
,
也是他的女婿
.1688
年
11
月
15
日威廉在托尔比登陆
并占领伦敦
.
这一占领相当顺利
,
既未流血也未处死国王
,
所以就称为
光荣革
命
William
and
Mary
jointly
accepted
the
Bill
of
Rights
which,excluding
any
Roman
Catholic
from
the
succession
,confirmed
the
principle
of
parliamentary
supremacy
and guaranteed
free speech
within both the
House of Lords and the House of Commons.
威廉和玛丽共同接受了《权利法案》
,
此法案剥夺了罗马天主
教徒的继承王位的权利
,
确立了议会权利至高无上的原则
,
保证了上下两院中的自由言论权
.
Chapter 7
Government and
Administration
英国政府机构
British
Constitution
英国宪法
The
United
Kingdom
is
a
constitutional
monarchy:the
head
of
state
is
a
king
or
a
practice,the
Sovereign reigns,but doesn’t rule:the United
Kingdom is governed, in the name of the Sovereign
by His or Her Majesty’s
System
of
parliamentary
government
is
not
based
on
a
written
is
no
written
constitution
in
the
United
Kingdom,that
is,the
British
constitution is not
set out in any single is made up of statute law,
common law and conventions. The Judiciary
determines common law and
interprets
p>
statutes.
联合王国是君主立宪制国家
,
国家的首脑是国王或女王
.
实际
上君主统而不治
.
联合王国以君的名义
,
由国王或女王陛下政府治理
.
英国的
议会制度并不是基于成文宪法
.
英国宪法不由单一文件构成
p>
,
而由成文法
,
习
惯法和惯例组成
.
司法部门裁定习惯法或解释成文法
.
tutional Monarchy in
Britain
英国君主立宪制
The monarchy is
the oldest institution of government,going back to
at least the 9th
continuity of the
monarchy has been broken only once when,between
1649 to 1660,a republic was established.
君主政体是最古老的政府机
构
,
至少
可以追溯到
9
世纪
.
< br>除了
1649
年至
1660
p>
年间建立过一个共和国而中断过一次外
,
很
少改变
.
Although the monarchy has
survived,it seems
that it has no real
power toda
monarch’s power are limited
by law and tutional monarchy began after the
Glorious Revolution in
1688.
今天尽管君主政体仍然存在
,
但似乎已无实权
< br>.
它的权力受限于法律和议会
.
君主立宪制是从
1688
年的光荣革命后开始
< br>.
The
Queen’s
husband is the Duke of Edinburgh,and
her eldest son is the Prince of a daughter
succeeds to the throne,she becomes Queen
Regnant,and has
the
same
powers as
a
king.
女王的的丈夫是爱丁堡公爵
,
长子是威
尔士亲王
,
女儿继位则成为在位女王
,
与国王享有同等权力
.Elizabeth
II,her title
in
the United Kingdom is
4
and Territories, Queen,
Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith
伊莉莎白二世
,
她的全称是
< br>
上帝神佑
,
大布列颠及北爱尔兰
联合王国以及
她的其他领土和领地的女王
,
英联邦元首
,
国教保护者伊莉莎白二世
The
Queen
is
the
symbol
of
the
whole
nation.
In
law,
She
is
head
of
the
executive,
an
integral
part
of
the
legislature,
head
of
the
judiciary,
the
commander-in-
chief of all
the armed forces of the Crown and the “supreme
governor” of the established Church of England.
女王是国家的象征
.
从法律
< br>上讲
,
她是行政首脑
,
立法机构的组成部分
,
司法首脑
,
全国武装部队总司令
,
英国
国教
至高无上的领袖
< br>
The Civil List is an
annual grant approved by grant is made to the
British Sovereign and members of the royal is
used to cover
the expense involved in
carrying out their public duties.
In
Britain,th
e Queen’s private expenditure
as Sovereign is met from the Privy Purse,which is
financed mainly from the revenue of the
Duchy
of Lancaster.
在英国
,
女王的君主开销由王室内库支付
,
王室内库主要来自兰开斯特郡的王室领地收入
.
British Parliament and its
functions
英国的议院和它的作用
The United Kingdom is a
unitary,not a federal,ment consists of
the Sovereign, the House of Lords and
the House of Commons.A Parliament has a maximum
duration of five years.
英国是中央集权国家
,
而不是联邦制
国家
.
议会由君主
,
上议院和下议院组成
.
一届议会的最长任期是
5
年
.
The main functions of Parliament are:
p>
议会的主要作用是
:
①
to pass laws
通过
立法
;
②
to
provide,by
voting
for
taxation,the
means
of
carrying
on
the
work
of
government
投票批准征税
,
为政府工作提供资金
;
③
to
examine
government Policy
and administrations,including proposal for expendi
ture
检查政府政策和行政管理
,
包
括拨款提议
;
④
to debate
the major issues of the
day
当天的议题辩论
.
The
House
of
Parliament
were
rebuilt
between
1835
and
1857
after
having
been
destroyed
by
fire
and
were
designed
by
Sir
Charles public are admitted to the
Strangers’ Galleries in the House of Lords and the
House of Commons.
议会大厦被大火烧毁后
,
于
1835
年
重建
,
是查尔斯
?
巴里设计的
.
公众可以到上下议院的公众旁听席旁听会议辩
论
.
The House of
Lords is made up of the Lords Spiritual and the
Lords Lords Spiritual are the Archbishops of
Canterbury and York and 24
senior
bishops of the Church of main function of the
House of Lords is to bring the wide experience of
its members into the process of
other
words,the non-elected House is to act as a chamber
of revision, complementing but not rivaling the
elect House.
上议院由神职贵族
议员和世俗贵族议
员组成
.
神职贵族议员是指坎特伯雷大主教和约克大主教以及英
国教会的
24
位高级主教
.
它的主要作用是用议员的丰富经验
帮助立法
.<
/p>
换而言之
,
非选举的上议院是修正议院<
/p>
,
对由选举产生的下议院立案进行补充而并非反对
.
The Gentleman Usher of the
Black Rod,usually known as “Black Rod”,is
responsible for security, accommodation and
services in the House of Lords’
part of
the Palace of Westminster.
“
黑
杖侍卫
”
负责威斯敏斯特宫中上议院的安全
,
膳宿和服务
.
The House of Common is
elected by universal adult
suffrage and
consists of 651 Members of Parliament (MPs).It is
in the House of Commons that the ultimate
authority for law-making resides.
下议院由成<
/p>
人普选产生
,
由
651
名议员组成
.
下议院拥有最终立
法权
.
Britain is divided 651
constituencies. Each of the constituencies returns
one member to
the House of Commons. A
general Election must be held every five years and
is often held at more frequent intervals.
英国被划分为
651
个选区
,
p>
每个选
区选一名下议院议员
.
大选必须五年举行一次
,
但经常不到五年就进行一次
选举
.
British
citizens and citizens of other Commonwealth
countries,together with citizens of the Irish-
Republic,may stand for election as Mps provided
they
are aged 21 or over and are not
date must deposit
?
500,which
is returned if he or she receives 5% or more of
the vote cast.
英国公民
和其他英联邦国家公民
以及爱尔兰共和国公民
,
都可以竞选议员
,
条件是年满
21
岁以上和没有被取
消资格
.
候选人必须交纳
500
英镑保证金
,
若得
到
投票总数的
5%
以上的选票则可以退还
.
Britain
has
a
number
of
parties,
but
there
are
only
two
major
parties.
These
two
parties
are
the
Conservative Party and
the Labour Party. Since 1945, either the
Conservative Party or the Labour Party has held
power. The party which wins sufficient
seats at a General Election to command
a majority of supporters in the House of Commons
usually forms the Government. The leader of the
majority
party is appointed Prime
Minister by the party which wins the second
largest number of seats becomes the official
Opposition, with its
own leader and
“shadow cabinet ”.The aims of the Opposition are
to contribute t
o the formulation of
policy and legislation by constructive
criticism,to
oppose government
proposals it considers objectionable,to seek
amendments to government Bills,and to put forward
its own policies in order to improve
its chances of winning the next general
election.
英国有很多政党,但有两个主要的政党
—<
/p>
-
保守党和工党。从
1945
年以来,两党一直轮流执政,在
大选中获多数议席因而在下议院拥有多数支
持者的政党组建政府,多数党领袖由君主任命为首相。获得第二多数议席的政党则正式成为
“
反对
党
”
,
有自己的领袖和影子内阁。
反对党的目的是对政策和立法的制
定提出建设性批评
,
反对它认为不对的提议
,
修正政府议案
,
提出自己的方针
政
策以增加瑕疵大选时本党获胜的机会
.
British
Government
英国政府
Her
Majesty
’
s Government is the
body of ministers responsible for the conduct of
national
Prime Minister is appointed
by the is also,by tradition,First Lord of the
Treasury and Minister for the Civil modern
convention,the
Prime Minister always
sits in the House of offical residence is No.10
Downing Street in Prime Minister presides over
the
Cabinet, is responsible for the
allocation of functions among ministers and
informs the Queen at regular meetings of general
business of the Government.
Cabinet
members hold meetings under the chairmanship of
the Prime Minister for a few hours each week to
decide Government policy on major issues.
女王陛下政府是由负责处理全国事务的大臣组成的机构
.
女王任命首相
.
根
据传统
,
首相也是首席财政大臣和文职部大臣
< br>,
根据现代惯例
,
首相必须
p>
是下议院议员
.
他的官邸是伦敦的唐宁街十
号
.
首相主持内阁
,
< br>负责分配大臣们的职能
,
在定期会见女王时向女王报告政
府事务
.
内阁在首相的主持
下
,
每周开会几小时
,
以
决定在重大问题上政府的政策
.
Ministers are appointed by the Queen on
the recommendation of the Prime ers
are
responsible collectively to Parliament for all
Cabinet decisions; individual Ministers are
responsible to Parliament for the work of their
department.
女王根据首相推荐任命大臣
.
内阁的所有决定由大臣全体负责
,
各大臣又为各自部门的工作向议会负责
.The
government
departments
are
staffed
by
members of the Civil Service,whose duty
is to assist in carrying out the administration of
laws passed by Servants do not belong to any
political party Changes of Government
do not involve changes in departmental staff are
recruited mainly by competitive examination..
There are about
541800 civil servants
in Britain now.
政府各部公务员来自行政事物部
,
其职责是帮助贯彻议会通过的法律
.
公务员部门不属于任何政党
,
政府的变更
并不影响部门职员的变更
.
公务员主要是通过竞争考试录用
.
英国现约有
541800
名公务员
.
Chapter 15
American History
美国历史
(1600-1900)
discovery
of
the
New
World
发现新大陆
The
American
were
the
Indians
.The
Indians
lived
on
the
land
by
hunting,
gathering,
fis
hing and farming.“
最早的美国人<
/p>
”
是印地安人
.
在这块土地上
,
印第安人以狩猎
,
p>
采集野果
,
捕鱼和农业为生
.
In the late
15
th
century,
Christopher
Columbus
,an Italian navigator,reached
some small islands in the now
West
Indies
.He thought he had reached Asia
and
didn’t
know
he
had
discovered
a
New
C
r
navigator,
Amerigo
Vespucci
,proved
that
the
land
was
not
India,but
a
new
ore,the
land was named America after him.15
世纪时期
,
意大利海员克里斯托夫
?
哥伦布来到现在的西印度洋的一些小岛上,他认为
5
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