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戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套
笔记
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自己整理版
Chapter 1
Introduction
What is linguistics?
什么是语言学
[A] The
definition of linguistics
Linguistics
is
generally defined as the scientific study of
language (
对语言进行的科学研究
)
Process of linguistic study:
①
Certain linguistic facts
are observed, generalization are formed;
②
Hypotheses are formulated;
③
Hypotheses are tested by
further observations;
④
A
linguistic theory is constructed.
[B]
The scope of linguistics
General
linguistics
普通语言学
:
the study of language as a
whole
从整体研究
ics:
the general study of the characteristics of speech
sounds (or the study of the phonic
medium of language) (How speech sounds
are produced and classified)
ogy
: is essentially the
description of the systems and patterns of speech
sounds in a
language.
(How sounds form systems and function
to convey meaning)
logy: the study of
the way in which morphemes are arranged to form
words (how
morphemes are combined to
form words)
: the study of those rules
that govern the combination of words to form
permissible
sentences (how morphemes
and words are combined to form sentences)
ics: the study of meaning in
abstraction
tics: the study of meaning
in context of use
Sociolinguistics: the
study of language with reference to society
Psycholinguistics: the study of
language with reference to the workings of the
mind
Applied linguistics: the
application of linguistics principles and theories
to language teaching and
learning
Anthropological linguistics,
neurological linguistics; mathematical
linguistics; mathematical
linguistics;
computational linguistics
[C] Some important distinctions in
linguistics
①
Prescriptive
vs. Descriptive
规定性与描写性
②
Synchronic vs. Diachronic
共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性）
The description of a language at some
point in time;
The description of a
language as it changes through time.
③
Speech and writing
言语与文字
Spoken
language is primary, not the written
④
Langue and parole
语言和言语
Proposed by
Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)
Langue: refers to the abstract
linguistic system shared by all the members of a
speech community
（指一
个话语社团所有成员
共有的语言系统）
Parole: refers to
the realization of langue in actual
use
（指语言在实际运用中的实现）
⑤
Competence and performance
语言能力与语言运用
Proposed by the American linguist N.
Chomsky (psychological)
（
理想的
语言使用者关于语言
Competence:
the
ideal user’s knowle
dge of the rules of
his language.
规则方面的知识）
Performance: the actual realization of
this knowledge in linguistics communication.
（这种知识在
语言交流中的具体实现）
What is language?
什么是语言
[A] The
definition of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal
symbols used for human communication. (
语言是一个具有任意
性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。
)
a) System: combined together
according to rules
（根据规则组合在一起）
（
语言符
b) Arbitrary:
no intrinsic connection between a linguistic
symbol and what the symbol stands
for
号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）
c) Vocal: the primary medium is sound
for all languages
（所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）
d) Human: language is human-specific
（语言是人类所独有的）
[B]Design features (unique properties):
the defining properties of human language that
distinguish it
from any animal system
of communication
（识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统
的本质特
征）
①
Arbitrariness
（任意性）
There is no logical or natural
connection between a linguistic form (either sound
or word) and its
meaning.
While language is arbitrary by nature,
it is not entirely arbitrary.
（意义和语音之间没有
什么逻辑的联
系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）
a) echo of the sounds of objects or
activities: onomatopoeic words
（拟声词）
b) some
compound words
（某些复合词）
②
Productivity
（能产性，创造性）
Language is productive in
that it makes possible the construction and
interpretation of new signals
by its
users. (Creativity or open-endedness)
★
③
Duality
（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）
Language is organized at two
levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or
basic level is a structure
of sounds
which are meaningless. The higher level is
morpheme or word (double articulation)
（
语言是一
个系统，包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低
/
基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高
层面存在着意义
单位；结构的双重性
/
语言的双层性）
④
Displacement
（跨时空
性，移位性）
Language can be used
to refer to contexts removed from the immediate
situations of the speaker
(refer to
past and future time and to other locations)
⑤
Cultural
transition
（文化传递性）
While human capacity for
language has a genetic basis (everyone was born
with the ability to
acquire a
language), the details of any language system are
not genetically transmitted, but instead have
to be taught and learnt.
The
above 5 properties may be taken as the core
features of human language.
Chapter 2
Phonology
音位学
[A] The
definition of phonetics
（语音学）
Phonetics: the study of the phonic
medium of language: it is concerned with all the
sounds that
occur in
the
world’s languages.
（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语
言世界中的所有语音）
Articulatory
phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are
made, or articulated.
（发音语音学）
（听觉语音学）
Acoustic phonetics:
deals with the physical properties of speech as
sound waves in the air.
Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics:
deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech
sounds.
（声学语音
学）
[B] Organs of speech
（发音器官）
Voiceless:
清音
when the vocal cords are spread apart,
the air from the lungs passes between them
unimpeded.
Voiced (Voicing):
浊音
when the vocal
cords
声带
are drawn
together, the air from the lungs repeated
pushes them apart as it passes through,
creating a vibration effect.
All the
English vowels
元音
are
typically voiced (voicing).
The
important cavities:
The pharyngeal
cavity
咽腔
The
oral cavity
口腔
The nasal cavity
鼻腔
其他部位：
Lips
唇
1,
teeth
齿
2, teeth ridge
(alveolus)
齿龈
3, hard
palate
硬腭
4, soft palate
(velum)
软腭
5,
uvula
小舌
6, tip of
tongue
舌尖
7, blade of
tongue
舌面
8, back of
tongue
舌后
9, vocal
cords
声带
10
[C] Orthographic representation of
speech sounds
：
Broad and
narrow transcriptions
（语音的正
字法表征：宽式
/
窄式标音）
IPA (International Phonetic
Alphabet/Association
国际语音协会
/<
/p>
国际音标
)
Broad
transcription: the transcription with letter-
symbols only
（代表字母的符号）
Narrow transcription: the transcription
with letter-symbols together with the diacritics
（变音符）
E.g.:
[l]
?
[li:f]--
?
a clear [l] (no diacritic)
[l]
?
[bild]--
?
a dark [l] (~)
[l]
?
[help]--
?
a dental
[l] ( )
表示送气
[p]
?<
/p>
[pit]--
?
an
aspirated [p
h
](
h<
/p>
)
[p]
?
[
spit]--
?
an unaspirated [p]
(no diacritic)
[n]
?
[
?
b
?
tn]
?
a syllabic nasal [n]
(
?
)
[D] Classification of English
consonants
（英语辅音的分类）
In terms of manner of articulation
根据发音方法分
(the
manner in which obstruction is created)
①
Stops
闭塞音
: the
obstruction is total or complete, and then going
abruptly
[p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]
②
Fricatives
摩擦音
: the obstruction is partial, and the air is
forced through a narrow passage in the
month
[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [
∫
]/[
з
], <
/p>
[θ]
/
[δ]
, [h] (approximant)
③
Affrica
tes
塞擦音
: the obstruction,
complete at first, is released slowly as in
fricatives
[t
∫
]/[d
з
]
④
Liquids
流音
: the
airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape
through the passage between part or
parts of the tongue and the roof of the
mouth
[l]
?
a lateral
sound; [r]
?
retroflex
⑤
Glides
滑音
:
[w], [j] (semi-vowels)
Liquid + glides
+ [h]
?
approximants
< br>⑥
Nasals
鼻音
: the
nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft
palate to let air pass through it
[m],
[n], [
η
]
By place
of articulation
根据发音部位分
(the place where obstruction is
created)
①
bilabial
双唇音
: upper and lower lips are brought
together to create obstructions [p]/[b],
[w]
?
(velar)
②
labiodentals
唇齿音
: the
lower lip and the upper teeth
[f]/[v]
③
dental
齿音
: the tip of the tongue and
the upper front teeth
[θ]
/
[δ]
④
alveolar
齿龈音
: the
front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge
[t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l],
[r]
⑤
palatal
腭音
: tongue in the middle of the palate
[θ]
/
[
δ]
, [t
∫
]/[d
з
], [j]
⑥
vel
ars
软腭因
: the back of the
tongue against the velum
[k], [g], [
η
]
⑦
glottal
喉音
: the glottal is the space between the vocal
cords in the larynx
[h]
[E] Classification of
English vowels
（英语元音的分类）
①
The highest
position of the tongue: front, central, back;
②
The openness of the mouth:
close, semi-close, semi-open, open;
③
The roundness (shape) of
the month (the lips):
All the front,
central vowels are unrounded vowels except
[
?
]
All the back
vowels, except [A:] are rounded vowels
④
The length of the sound:
long vowels & short vowels
Larynx
?
(tense) or (lax)
Monophthongs, diphthongs
Cardinal vowels
[F] The definition of
phonology
（音位学）
Phonetics
is interested in
all the speech sounds used in all human languages;
how they are produced,
how they differ
from each other, what phonetic features they
possess, how they can be classified, etc.
Phonology, on the other hand, is
interested in the system of sounds of a particular
languages; it aims to
discover how
speech sounds in a language form patterns and how
these sounds are used to convey
meaning
in linguistic communication.
[G] Phone,
phoneme, and
allophone
（音素、音位、音位变体）
Phone
: a phone is a phonetic
unit or segment
（因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段）
Phoneme
: a
phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of
distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.
（音
位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位
）
Allophone
: the
different phones which can represent a phoneme in
different phonetic environments
are
called the allophones of that phoneme.
（
在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音
位变
体）
[H] Phonemic contrast, complementary
distribution, minimal
pair
（音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体）
Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes
can occur in the same environments in two words
and they
distinguish meaning, they’re
in phonemic contrast.
E.g.
pin & bin
?
/p/ vs. /b/ rope
& robe
?
/p/ vs. /b/
（要会判断！）
Complementary distribution
:
two or more than two allophones of the same
phonemes are said
to be in
complementary distribution because they can not
appear at the same time, or occur in different
environment, besides they do not
distinguish meaning.
Minimal
pair
: when two different forms are
identical in every way except for one sound
segment
which occurs in the same place
in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a
minimal a
group of words can be
differentiated, each one from the others, by
changing one phoneme (always in the
same position), then all of these words
constitute a minimal sets.
[I] Some rules in phonology
①
sequential rules
序列规则
Phonotactics of 3 consonants occurring
in onset:
如果三个辅音都出现在词首，必须遵循以下三条规则：
No1:
___/s/
第一个音位一定是
/s/
___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/
第二个音位一定是
/p/, /t/, /k/
___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/
第三个音位一定是
/r/,
/l/, /w/, /j/
No2:
The
affricates [t
∫
],[d
з
] and the
sibilants
[s],[z],[θ]
,
[δ]
are not to be followed by another sibilants.
②
assimilation rules
同化规则
Co-
articulation effects: the process of making one
sound almost at the same time as the next is
called
co-articulation.
Assimilation & elision effects
元音省略
Assimilation: two phonemes occur in
sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken
or copied
by the other
E.g.
nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal
sound.
鼻音化现象
③
deletion rule/Elision
省略规则
Definition:
the omission of a sound segment which would be
present in deliberate pronunciation of a
word in isolation
E.g.
delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal
consonant
省略词末鼻辅音前的
[g]
音
[J] Suprasegmental
features
（超音段特征）
①
Stress
重音
Word
stress & sentence stress
The stress of
the English compounds always on the first element
②
Tone
声调
Tones are
pitch variations, which are caused by the
differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
Pitch variations can distinguish
meaning just like
morphemes.
像音素一样可以区别意义
Tone language, like Chinese, has four
tones.
汉语就是一种典型的声调语言，有四个音调
Level, rise, fall-rise, fall
阴平
阳平
上声
去声
③
Intonation
语调
When pitch,
stress and sound length are tied to the sentence
rather than the word in isolation, they
are collectively known as intonation.
English: the four basic types of
intonation, or the four tones
四种语调
The falling
tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and
the rise-fall tone
降调
声调
将声调
升降调