法国大革命英文翻译

French Revolution

The

French

Revolution

(1789

–

1799)

was

a

period

of

radical

social

and

political

upheaval

in

French and European history. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed

in

three

years.

French

society

underwent

an

epic

transformation

as

feudal,

aristocratic

and

religious

privileges

evaporated

under

a

sustained

assault

from

liberal

political

groups

and

the

masses on the streets. Old ideas about hierarchy and tradition succumbed to new Enlightenment

principles of citizenship and inalienable rights.

The French Revolution began

in 1789 with the convocation of the Estates-General in May.

The

first

year

of

the

Revolution

witnessed

members

of

the

Third

Estate

proclaiming

the

Tennis

Court Oath in June, the assault on the Bastille in July, the passage of the Declaration of the Rights

of Man and of the Citizen

in August, and an epic march on V

ersailles that forced the royal court

back to Paris in October. The next few years were dominated by tensions between various liberal

assemblies

and

a

conservative

monarchy

intent

on

thwarting

major

reforms.

A

republic

was

proclaimed in September 1792 and King

Louis XVI was executed the next year. External threats

also played a dominant role in the development of the Revolution. The French Revolutionary Wars

started in 1792 and ultimately featured spectacular French victories that facilitated the conquest of

the Italian peninsula, the Low Countries and most territories west of the Rhine

—

achievements that

had defied previous French governments for centuries. Internally, popular sentiments radicalized

the

Revolution

significantly,

culminating

in

the

Reign

of

Terror

from

1793

until

1794

during

which

between

16,000

and

40,000

people

were

the

fall

of

Robespierre

and

the

Jacobins, the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795 and held power until 1799,

when it was replaced by the Consulate under Napoleon Bonaparte.

The

modern

era

has

unfolded

in

the

shadow

of

the

French

Revolution.

The

growth

of

republics and liberal democracies, the spread of secularism, the development of modern ideologies

and

the

invention

of

total

war[citation

needed]

all

mark

their

birth

during

the

Revolution.

Subsequent events that can be traced to the Revolution include the Napoleonic Wars, two separate

restorations of the monarchy and two additional revolutions as modern France took shape. In the

following century, France would be governed at one point or another as a republic, constitutional

monarchy and two different empires.

Causes

Adherents of most historical models identify many of the same features of the Ancien Ré

gime as

being among the causes of the Revolution. Economic factors included hunger and malnutrition in

the most destitute segments of the population, due to rising bread prices (from a normal eight sous

for a four-pound loaf to 12 sous by the end of 1789),,after several years of poor grain harvests.

The combination

of

bad

harvests

(due

to

abnormal/severe weather fluctuations)

and

rising

food

prices was further aggravated by an inadequate transportation system which hindered the shipment

of

bulk

foods

from

rural

areas

to

large

population

centers,

contributing

greatly

to

the

destabilization of French society in the years leading up to the Revolution.

Another cause may have been France's near bankruptcy as a result of the many wars fought

by previous rulers, as well as the financial strain caused by French participation

in the American

Revolutionary

War.

The

national

debt

amounted

to

almost

2

billion

livres.

The

social

burdens

caused

by

war

included

the

huge

war

debt,

made

worse

by

the

loss

of

France's

colonial

possessions in North America and the growing commercial dominance of Great Britain. France's

inefficient

and

antiquated

financial

system was

unable

to

manage

the

national

debt,

something

which

was

both

partially

caused

and

exacerbated

by

the

burden

of

an

inadequate

system

of

taxation. To obtain new money to head off default on the government's loans, the king called an

Assembly of Notables in 1787.

Meanwhile the royal court at V

ersailles

was perceived by many as being isolated from, and

indifferent to the hardships of the lower classes. While in theory King Louis XVI was an absolute

monarch,

in

practice

he was

often

indecisive

and

known

to

back

down when

faced with strong

opposition.

While

he

did

reduce

government

expenditures,

opponents

in

the

parlements

successfully thwarted his attempts at enacting much needed reforms. Those who were opposed to

Louis' policies further undermined royal authority by distributing pamphlets (often reporting false

or

exaggerated

information)

that

criticized

the

government

and

its

officials,

stirring

up

public

opinion against the monarchy.

Many

other

factors

involved

resentments

and

aspirations

given

focus

by

the

rise

of

Enlightenment

ideals.

These

included

resentment

of

royal

absolutism;

resentment

by

peasants,

laborers and the bourgeoisie toward the traditional seigneurial privileges possessed by the nobility;

resentment of the Church's influence over public policy and institutions; aspirations for freedom of

religion;

resentment

of

aristocratic

bishops

by

the

poorer

rural

clergy;

aspirations

for

social,

political

and

economic

equality,

and

(especially

as

the

Revolution

progressed)

republicanism;

hatred

of

Queen

Marie-Antoinette,

who

was

(falsely)

accused

of

being

a

spendthrift

and

an

Austrian

spy;

and

anger

toward

the

King

for

firing

Jacques

Necker,

among

others,

who

were

popularly seen as representatives of the people.

Pre- revolution

Financial crisis

Louis XVI ascended to the throne amidst a financial crisis; the nation was nearing bankruptcy and

outlays

outpaced

income.

This

was

because

of

France’s

financial

obligations

stemming

from

involvement in the Seven Y

ears War and its participation

in the American Revolutionary War. In

May 1776, finance minister Turgot was dismissed, after he failed to enact much needed reforms.

The

next

year, Jacques

Necker,

a

foreigner,

was

appointed

Comptroller- General

of

Finance.

He

could

not

be

made

an

official

minister

because

he

was

a

Protestant.

Necker

realized

that

the

country's

tax system,

which was

perceived

as

quite

regressive,

subjected

the

lower classes to

a

heavy burden; while numerous exemptions existed for the nobility and clergy. He argued that the

country could not be taxed higher, that tax exemptions for the nobility and clergy must be reduced,

and

proposed

that

borrowing

more

money

would

solve

the

country's

fiscal

shortages.

Necker

published a report to support this claim that underestimated the deficit by roughly 36 million livres,

and

proposed restricting

the

power

of

the

parlements.

This was

not

received

well

by

the

King's

ministers

and

Necker,

hoping

to

bolster

his

position,

argued

to

be

made

a

minister.

The

King