-
Chapter 1
Introduction
Ⅰ
.What is language?
1. Different definitions of language
(1)
Language
is
a
system
whose
parts
can
and
must
be
considered
in
their
synchronic solidarity.
(de Saussure, 1916)
(2) [Language is] a
set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite
in length and
constructed out of a
finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)
(3) Language is a purely
human
and non-instinctive
method of communicating
ideas, emotions
and desires by means of voluntarily produced
symbols.
2. Each of the definitions
above has pointed out
some aspects of
the essence of
language,
but
all
of
them
have
left
out
something.
We
must
see
the
multi-faceted nature
of
language.
3. As is agreed by linguists
in broad terms, language can be defined as
a system of
arbitrary vocal
symbols used for human communication
.
Ⅱ
.Features of human language
1. Creativity
(1)
Language
provides
opportunities
for
sending
messages
that
have
never
been sent before and for understanding
brand new messages.
(2) The grammar
rules and the words are finite, but the sentences
are infinite.
Every speaker uses
language creatively.
2. Duality
(1)
Language
contains
two
subsystems,
one
of
sounds
and
the
other
of
meanings.
(2) Certain sounds
or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.
(3) Certain meanings are conveyed by
certain speech sounds or sequences
of
speech sounds.
3. Arbitrariness
(1) The relationship between the two
subsystems of language is arbitrary.
(2) There is no logical connection
between sound and meaning.
4.
Displacement
(1) There is no limit in
time or space for language.
(2)
Language can be used to refer to things real or
imagined, past, present or
future.
5. Cultural transmission
(1)
Culture cannot be genetically transmitted.
Instead, it must be learned.
(2)
Language is a way of transmitting culture.
6. Interchangeability
All
members of a speech community can send and receive
messages.
7. Reflexivity
(1)
Human languages can be used to describe
themselves.
(2) The language used to
talk about language is called
meta-
language
.
Ⅲ
.Functions of language
–
three meta-functions
1. The ideational function
·
1
·
To identify things, to think, or to
record information.
2. The
interpersonal function
To
get along in a community.
3. The
textual function
To form a text.
Ⅳ
.Types of language
1. Genetic classification
2.
Typological classification
(1)
Analytic
language
–
no
inflections
or
formal
changes,
grammatical
relationships
are
shown
through
word
order,
such
as
Chinese
and
Vietnamese
(2) Synthetic
language
–
grammatical
relationships are expressed by changing
the internal structure of the words,
typically by changing the inflectional
endings, such as English and German
(3) Agglutinating language
–
words are built out of a
long sequence of units,
with
each
unit
expressing
a
particular
grammatical
meaning,
such
as
Japanese and Turkish
Ⅴ
.The myth of language
–
language origin
1. The Biblical account
Language was God’s gift to human
beings.
2. The bow-wow
theory
Language was an
imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of
animals,
like
quack
,
cuckoo
.
3. The
pooh-pooh theory
Language
arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive
of pain or joy.
4. The yo-he-ho theory
Language arose from the noises made by
a group of people engaged in joint
labour or effort
–
lifting a huge hunted
game, moving a rock, etc.
5. The
evolution theory
Language originated in
the process of labour and answered the call of
social
need.
Ⅵ
.What is linguistics?
1. Linguistics is
the
scientific study of language
.
(1) Observing & questioning
(2) Formulating hypotheses
(3) Verifying the hypotheses
(4) Proposing a theory
2.
Branches of linguistics
(1) Internal
branches: intra-disciplinary divisions
?
Phonetics
?
Phonology
?
Morphology
?
Syntax
?
Semantics
·
2
·
(2) External branches: inter-
disciplinary divisions
?
Pragmatics
?
Psycholinguistics
?
Sociolinguistics
?
Applied
linguistics
?
Computational linguistics
?
Neurolinguistics
3. Features of linguistics
(1) Descriptive
(2) Dealing
with spoken language
(3) Synchronic
Chapter 2
Phonetics
Ⅰ
.What
is phonetics?
1.
Phonetics is termed as
the study of
speech sounds.
2. Sub-
branches of phonetics
(1) Articulatory
phonetics
–
the production
of speech sounds
(2) Acoustic phonetics
–
the physical properties of
speech sounds
(3) Auditory phonetics
–
the perceptive mechanism
of speech sounds
Ⅱ
.The
speech organs
1. Where does the air
stream come from?
From the
lung
2. What is the function
of vocal cords?
Controlling
the air stream
3. What are
the cavities?
(1) Oral cavity
(2) Pharyngeal cavity
(3)
Nasal cavity
Ⅲ
.Transcription
of speech sounds
1. Units of
representation
Segments (the individual
sounds)
2. Phonetic symbols
(1) The widely used symbols for
phonetic transcription of speech sounds is the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
(2) The IPA attempts to represent each
sound of human speech with a single
symbol
and
the
symbols
are
enclosed
in
brackets
?
?
to
distinguish
phonetic
transcriptions from the spelling system of a
language.
(3)
In
more
detailed
transcription
(narrow
transcription)
a
sound
may
be
transcribed with a symbol to which a
smaller is added
in order to mark
the finer distinctions.
Ⅳ
.Description of speech
sounds
1. Description of English
consonants
(1) General feature:
obstruction
·
3
·
(2) Criteria of consonant description
?
Places of articulation
?
Manners of
articulation
?
V
oicing of articulation
(3) Places of articulation
This refers to each point at which the
air stream can be modified to
produce a
sound.
?
Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]
?
Labiodental:
[f] [v]
?
Interdental: [
?
]
[
?
]
?
Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]
?
Palatal:
[
?
]
[
?
]
[t
?
]
[d
?
] [j]
?
Velar: [k] [g]
[
?
]
?
Glottal: [h]
(4)
Manners of articulation
This refers to
how the air stream is modified, whether it is
completely
blocked or partially
obstructed.
?
Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
?
Fricatives: [s]
[z] [
?
]
[
?
] [f] [v]
[
?
]
[
?
] [h]
?
Affricates:
[t
?
]
[d
?
]
?
Liquids: [l] [r]
?
Glides: [w] [j]
?
Nasals: [m] [n]
[
?
]
(5) V
oicing of articulation
This
refers
to
the
vibrating
of
the
vocal
cords
when
sounds
are
produced.
?
V
oiced sounds
?
V
oiceless sounds
2. Description of English vowels
(1) General feature: without
obstruction
(2) Criteria of vowel
description
A. Part of the tongue that
is raised
?
Front
?
Central
?
Back
B. Extent to which the tongue rises in
the direction of the palate
?
High
?
Mid
?
Low
C. Kind of opening made at the lips
D. Position of the soft palate
(3) Single vowels (monophthongs) and
diphthongs
Ⅴ
.Phonetic
features and natural classes
1. Classes
of sounds that share a feature or features are
called natural classes.
·
4
·
2.
Major
class
features
can
specify
segments
across
the
consonant-vowel
boundary.
3. Classification of segments by
features is the basis on which variations of
sounds can
be analyzed.
Chapter 3 Phonology
Ⅰ
.What is
phonology?
1.
Phonology is
the study of sound systems
and patterns
.
2.
Phonology
and
phonetics
are
two
studies
different
in
perspectives,
which
are
concerned with the study of speech
sounds.
3. Phonology focuses on three
fundamental questions.
(1) What sounds
make up the list of sounds that can distinguish
meaning in
a particular language?
(2) What sounds vary in what ways in
what context?
(3) What sounds can
appear together in a sequence in a particular
language
Ⅱ
.Phonemes and
allophones
1. A phoneme is a
distinctive, abstract sound unit with a
distinctive feature.
2. The variants of
a phoneme are termed allophones.
3. We
use allophones to realize phonemes.
Ⅲ
.Discovering phonemes
1. Contrastive distribution
–
phonemes
(1) If
sounds appear in the same environment, they are
said to be in contrastive
distribution.
(2)
Typical
contrastive
distribution
of
sounds
is
found
in
minimal
pairs
and
minimal
sets.
A. A minimal pair consists of two
words that differ by only one sound in
the same position.
B.
Minimal
sets
are
more
than
two
words
that
are
distinguished
by
one
segment in the same
position.
(3) The overwhelming majority
of the consonants and vowels represented by
the English phonetic alphabet are in
contrastive distribution.
(4)
Some
sounds
can
hardly
be
found
in
contrastive
distribution
in
English.
However,
these
sounds
are
distinctive
in
terms
of
phonetic
features.
Therefore, they
are separate phonemes.
2. Complementary
distribution
–
allophones
(1)
Sounds
that
are
not
found
in
the
same
position
are
said
to
be
in
complementary distribution.
(2)
If
segments
are
in
complementary
distribution
and
share
a
number
of
features, they are allophones of the
same phoneme.
3. Free variation
If segments appear in the same position
but the mutual substitution does
not
result in change of meaning, they are said to be
in free variation.
Ⅳ
.Distinctive and non-
distinctive features
1. Features that
distinguish meaning are called distinctive
features, and features do
·
5
·
not, non-distinctive features.
2. Distinctive features in one language
may be non-distinctive in another.
Ⅴ
.Phonological rules
1. Phonemes are abstract sound units
stored in the mind, while allophones are the
actual pronunciations in speech.
2.
What
phoneme
is
realized
by
what
allophones
in
what
specific
context
is
another major question in phonology.
3.
The
regularities
that
what
sounds
vary
in
what
ways
in
what
context
are
generalized and stated
in phonology as rules.
4.
There
are
many
phonological
rules
in
English.
Take
the
following
ones
as
examples.
A. [+voiced +consonant]
–
[-voiced]/[-voiced
+consonant]_
B. [-voiced +bilabial
+stop]
–
unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_
Ⅵ
.Syllable structure
1. A syllable is a phonological unit
that is composed of one or more phonemes.
2. Every syllable has a nucleus, which
is usually a vowel.
3. The nucleus may
be preceded by one or more consonants called the
onset and
followed by one or more
consonants called the coda.
Ⅶ
.Sequence of phonemes
1.
Native
speakers
of
any
language
intuitively
know
what
sounds
can
be
put
together.
2.
Some
sequences
are
not
possible
in
English.
The
impossible
sequences
are
called systematic gaps.
3. Sequences that are possible but do
not occur yet are called accidental gaps.
4. When new words are coined, they may
fill some accidental gaps but they will
never fill systematic gaps.
Ⅷ
. Suprasegmental features
1. Features that are found over a
segment or a sequence of two or more segments
are called suprasegmental features.
2. These features are distinctive
features.
3. Stress
(1)
Stress
is
the
perceived
prominence
of
one
or
more
syllabic
elements
over others in a
word.
(2) Stress is a relative notion.
Only words that are composed of two or more
syllables have stress.
(3)
If
a
word
has
three
or
more
syllables,
there
is
a
primary
stress
and
a
secondary
stress.
(4)
In
some
languages
word
stress
is
fixed,
i.e.
on
a
certain
syllable.
In
English, word stress is unpredictable.
4. Intonation
(1) When we
speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express
ideas.
(2) Intonation is the variation
of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.
(3)
The
same
sentence
uttered
with
different
intonation
may
express
different attitude
of the speaker.
·
6
·
(4) In English, there are three basic
intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.
5. Tone
(1) Tone is the
variation of pitch to distinguish words.
(2) The same sequence of segments can
be different words if uttered with
different tones.
(3) Chinese
is a typical tone language.
Chapter 4
Morphology
Ⅰ
.What
is morphology?
1. The total number of
words stored in the brain is called the
lexicon.
2. Words are the
smallest free units of language that unite sounds
with meaning.
3.
Morphology
is
defined
as
the
study
of
the
internal
structure
and
the
formation
of words
.
Ⅱ
.Morphemes and allomorphs
1. The smallest meaningful unit of
language is called a morpheme.
2. A morpheme may be represented by
different forms, called allomorphs.
3. “zero” form of a morpheme and
suppletives
(1)
Some countable nouns do not change form to express
plurality. Similarly,
some
regular
verbs
do
not
change
form
to
indicate
past
tense.
In
these
two cases, the noun or verb contains
two morphemes, among which there
is one
“zero form” of a morpheme.
(2) Some verbs have irregular changes
when they are in past tense. In this case,
the verbs also have two morphemes.
Words which are not related in form
to
indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are
called suppletives.
Ⅲ
.Free
and bound morphemes
1. Some morphemes
constitute words by themselves. These morphemes
are called
free morphemes.
2. Other morphemes are never used
independently in speech and writing. They are
always attached to free morphemes to
form new words. These morphemes are
called bound morphemes.
3.
The distinction between a free morphemes and a
bound morpheme is whether it
can be
used independently in speech or writing.
4. Free morphemes are the roots of
words, while bound morphemes are the affixes
(prefixes and suffixes).
Ⅳ
.Inflexional and
derivational morphemes
1. Inflexional
morphemes in modern English indicate case and
number of nouns,
tense and aspect of
verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.
2.
Derivational
morphemes
are
bound
morphemes
added
to
existing
forms
to
construct new words.
(1)
English affixes are divided into prefixes and
suffixes.
(2) Some languages have
infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into
other morphemes.
(3)
The
process
of
putting
affixes
to
existing
forms
to
create
new
words
is
called
derivation. Words thus formed are called
derivatives.
·
7
·
Ⅴ
.Conclusion: classification
of morphemes
Morphemes
(1)
Free morphemes
(2) Bound morphemes
A. Inflexional
B.
Derivational: affixes
?
Prefixes: -s, -
’s,
-er, -est, -ing, -ed, -s
?
Suffixes
?
Ⅵ
.Formation of new words
1. Derivation
(1) Derivation
forms a word by adding an affix to a free
morpheme.
(2) Since derivation can
apply more than once, it is possible to create a
derived
word
with
a
number
of
affixes.
For
example,
if
we
add
affixes
to
the
word
friend
,
we
can
form
befriend
,
friendly
,
unfriendly
,
friendliness
,
unfriendliness
, etc. This
process of adding more than one affix to a free
morpheme is termed complex derivation.
(3)
Derivation
does
not
apply
freely
to
any
word
of
a
given
category.
Generally speaking, affixes cannot be
added to morphemes of a different
language origin.
(4)
Derivation is also constrained by phonological
factors.
(5) Some English suffixes also
change the word stress.
2. Compounding
(1) Compounding is another common way
to form words. It is the combination
of
free morphemes.
(2) The majority of
English compounds are the combination of words
from the
three
classes
–
nouns,
verbs
and
adjectives
–
and
fall
into
the
three
classes.
(3) In compounds,
the rightmost morpheme determines the part of
speech of
the word.
(4)
The
meaning
of
compounds
is
not
always
the
sum
of
meaning
of
the
components.
3. Conversion
(1) Conversion
is the process putting an existing word of one
class into another
class.
(2) Conversion is usually found in
words containing one morpheme.
4.
Clipping
(1) Clipping is a process that
shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or
more syllables.
(2) Clipped
words are initially used in spoken English on
informal occasions.
(3) Some clipped
words have become widely accepted, and are used
even in
formal styles. For example, the
words
bus
(omnibus),
vet
(veterinarian),
gym
(gymnasium),
fridge
(refrigerator)
and
fax
(facsimile)
are
rarely used
in their complete form.
·
8
·
5. Blending
Blending
is
a
process
that
creates
new
words
by
putting
together
non-morphemic parts
of existing words.
For example,
smog
(smoke + frog),
brunch
(a meal in the middle
of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch),
motel
(motor
+
hotel).
There
is
also
an
interesting
word
in
the
textbook
for
junior middle school
students
–
“
plike
” (a kind
of machine that is like both a
plane
and a bike).
6. Back-formation
Back-formation is the process that
creates a new word by dropping a real or
supposed
suffix.
For
example,
the
word
televise
is
back-formed
from
television
.
Originally, the word
television
is formed by
putting the prefix
tele-
(far) to the root
vision
(viewing). At the
same time, there is a suffix
-
sion
in
English
indicating
nouns.
Then
people
consider
the
-sion
in
the
word
television
as that suffix
and drop it to form the verb
televise
.
7.
Acronyms and abbreviations
(1)
Acronyms
and
abbreviations
are
formed
by
putting
together
the
initial
letters of all words
in a phrase or title.
(2) Acronyms can
be read as a word and are usually longer than
abbreviations,
which are read letter by
letter.
(3)
This
type
of
word
formation
is
common
in
names
of
organizations
and
scientific terminology.
8. Eponyms
Eponyms
are
words
that
originate
from
proper
names
of
individuals
or
places. For example, the
word
sandwich
is a common
noun originating
from
the
fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between
two slices of bread so
that he could
eat while gambling.
9. Coinage
(1) Coinage is a process of inventing
words not based on existing morphemes.
(2) This way of word formation is
especially common in cases where industry
requires a word for a new product. For
example, Kodak and
Coca-
cola
.
Chapter 5
Syntax
Ⅰ
.What is syntax?
1. The term syntax is from
the ancient Greek word
syntaxis
, which literally
means
“arrangement” or “setting out
together”.
2. Traditionally,
it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with
the ways in which
words, with or
without appropriate inflexions, are arranged to
show connexions
of meaning within the
sentence.
3. Syntax is
a branch of linguistics that analyzes
the structure of sentences
.
Ⅱ
.What is a
sentence?
1.
Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A
sentence is a sequence of words
arranged in a certain order in
accordance with grammatical rules.
2.
A
sequence
can
be
either
well-formed
or
ill-formed.
Native
speakers
of
a
language know intuitively what strings
of words are grammatical and what are
·
9
·
ungrammatical.
Ⅲ
.Knowledge of sentence
structure
1. Structural ambiguity
Structural ambiguity is one or more
string(s) of words has/have more than
one
meaning.
For
example,
the
sentence
Tom
said
he
would
come
yesterday
can be
interpreted in different ways.
2. Word
order
Different arrangements of the
same words have different meanings.
For
example, with the words
Tom
,
love
and
Mary
, we may say
Tom loves Mary
or
Mary loves Tom
.
3. Grammatical relations
Native speakers know what element
relates to what other element directly
or indirectly. For example, in
The boats are not big enough
and
We don’t have
enough
boats
,
the
word
enough
is
related
to
different
words
in
the
two
sentences.
4. Recursion
The
same
rule
can
be
used
repeatedly
to
create
infinite
sentences.
For
example,
I know that you are
happy. He knows that I know that you are happy.
She knows that he knows that I know
that you are happy.
5. Sentence
relatedness
Sentences may be
structurally variant but semantically related.
6. Syntactic categories
(1)
A syntactic category is a class of words or
phrases that can substitute for
one
another
without
loss
of
grammaticality.
For
example,
consider
the
following sentences:
?
The
child
found the knife.
?
A
policeman
found the knife.
?
The man who
just left here
found the knife.
?
He
found the knife.
(2) All
the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic
category called noun
phrase (NP). The
noun phrases in these sentences function as
subject.
The
knife
, also a noun phrase,
functions as object.
Ⅳ
.Traditional grammar
1. In traditional grammar, a sentence
is considered a sequence of words which are
classified into parts of speech.
2. Sentences are analyzed in terms of
grammatical functions
of words:
subjects,
objects, verbs (predicates),
predicatives, ....
3.
Compulsory
elements
of
a
sentence:
subject,
verb,
object,
complement,
adverbial...
4. Nouns:
number, case, gender...
5. Verbs:
tense, aspect, voice...
6. Adjectives
and adverbs: comparative and superlative degrees
7. Agreement in number/person/gender
8. Parsing: trying to make detailed
analysis in structure
·
10
·
Ⅴ
.Structural grammar
1. Structural grammar arose out of an
attempt to deviate from traditional grammar.
It
deals
with
the
inter-relationships
of
different
grammatical
units.
In
the
concern
of
structural
grammar,
words
are
not
just
independent
grammatical
units, but are inter-related to one
another.
2. Form class
(1)
Form class is a wider concept than part of speech
in traditional grammar.
(2)
Linguistic
units
which
can
appear
in
the
same
slot
are
said
to
be
in
the
same
form
class.
For
example,
a(n)
,
the
,
my
,
that
,
every
,
etc.
can
be
placed
before nouns in English sentences. These words
fall into one form
class.
(3) These linguistic units are observed
to have the same distribution.
3.
Immediate constituent (IC) analysis
(1)
Structural grammar is characterized by a top-down
process of analysis.
(2)
A
sentence
is
seen
as
a
constituent
structure.
All
the
components
of
the
sentences are its
constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections.
Each
section is its immediate
constituent. Then each section can be further cut
into constituents. This on-going
cutting is termed immediate constituent
analysis.
(3) Examples:
?
Old men and
women: old | men and women, old || men | and
women.
?
The |||
little || girl | speaks || French.
(4) In this way, sentence structure is
analyzed not only horizontally but
also
vertically.
In
other
words,
IC
analysis
can
account
for
the
linearity
and
the
hierarchy of sentence structure.
?
I will suggest
| that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular
ideology
|||| about gender ||||| that
deserves to be re-examined.
(5) Two advantages of IC analysis:
A. It can analyze some ambiguities.
B. It shows linearity and hierarchy of
one sentence.
Ⅵ
.Transformational-
generative (TG) grammar
1. Background
and the goal of TG grammar
(1) Chomsky
(1957)
–
grammar is the
knowledge of native speakers.
?
Adequacy of
observation
?
Adequacy of description
?
Adequacy of
explanation
(2)
Writing
a
TG
grammar
means
working
out
two
sets
of
rules
–
phrase
structure rules and
transformation rules
–
which
are followed by speakers
of the
language.
(3) TG grammar must account
for all and only grammatical sentences.
2. Syntactic categories
?
Noun Phrase
(NP)
?
Determiner
(Det)
?
Verb
Phrase (VP)
?
Adjective (Adj)
?
Sentence (S)
?
Pronoun (Pro)
·
11
·
?
Verb (V)
?
Prepositional
Phrase (PP)
?
Auxiliary Verb (Aux)
?
Adverb (Adv)
3. Phrase structure (PS) rules
?
S → NP
VP
(Det) (Adj) N
?
N
P →
Pro
?
VP → (Aux) V (NP) (PP)
?
PP
→ P NP
4. Tree diagrams
(omit)
5. Recursion and the infinitude
of language
S contains NP and VP and
that S may be a constituent of NP and VP. NP
and PP can be mutually inclusive. If
phrasal categories appear on both sides of
the arrow in phrase structure rules,
the rules are recursive. Recursive rules can
be applied again and again, and the
phrase structure can grow endlessly.
6.
Sub-categorization of the lexicon.
The
process
of
putting
words
of
the
same
lexical
category
into
smaller
classes according to
their syntactic characteristics is called sub-
categorization.
7. Transformational
rules (T-rules)
(1) Particle movement
T-rule
John turned the machine off.
John turned off the machine.
(2)
Replacement T-rule
John beat Tom. He
beat Tom.
The house needs repairing (to
be repaired).
(3) Insertion T-rule
A fish is swimming in the pond. There
is a fish swimming in the pond.
(4)
Deletion T-rule
They came in and (they)
sat down.
(5) Copying T-rule
He is coming,
isn’t
he
?
He has finished his
homework,
hasn’t he
?
(6) Reflexivization T-rule
I
wash me (myself).
8. TG grammar
accounts for the mental process of our speaking.
Ⅶ
.Systematic-
functional grammar
1. Background and
the goal of systemic-functional grammar
?
M. A. K.
Halliday
(1) Language is a
system of meaning potential and a network of
meaning
as choices.
(2) Meaning determines form, not vice
versa. Meaning is realized through
forms.
(3) The
goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how
function and
meaning are realized
through forms.
(4) The three
meta-functions of language
·
12
·
A. Ideational function
B. Interpersonal function
C. Textual function
2. The transitivity system of language
(1) Elements
?
Process
?
Participants
?
Circumstances
(2)
Categorization of reality
A. Doing
–
material process
?
Processes
involving
physical
actions:
walking,
running,
throwing, kicking,
wrapping, etc.
?
Actor, goal and circumstance
B. Being
–
relational process
?
Processes
representing
a
relation
being
set
up
between
two
separate entities.
?
Be
(identifying), have (attributive)
?
Carrier/possessor and
attribute/possessed
C. Sensing
–
mental process
?
Processes
of
sensing,
including
feeling,
thinking,
perceiving,
imagining, wanting, liking, etc.
?
Senser and
phenomenon
D. Less central types of
linguistic process
?
Verbal processes
–
saying something
Sayer and receiver
?
Behavioural
processes
–
active conscious
processes
Behaver and range
?
Existential
processes
–
existence of an
entity
Existent
3. Mood and
modality
(1) Mood
expresses
the speaker’s attitude and serves for
interpersonal function.
It is a
syntactic constituent made up of the subject and
the finite.
(2)
Modality
is
the
degree
of
certainty
or
frequency
expressed
by
the
grammatical
forms
of
finite.
It
can
be
categorized
by
modalization
and
modulation.
4. Theme and
rheme
(1) Theme is the given
information, while rheme is the new information.
(2) Examples:
?
John | is my friend.
?
He | should
have replied to my letter.
Chapter 6
Semantics
Ⅰ
.What
is semantics?
·
13
·
1.
Semantics
is
defined
as
the
study
of
meaning
.
However,
it
is
not
the
only
linguistic discipline that studies
meaning.
2.
Semantics
answers the question “what does this sentence
mean”. In other words,
it
is
the
analysis
of
conventional
meanings
in
words
and
sentences
out
of
context.
Ⅱ
.Reference and
sense
1. Linguistic
expressions stand in a relation to the world.
There are two aspects
of meaning.
2. Reference is the relation by which a
word picks out or identifies an entity in the
world. But the referential theory fails
to account for certain kinds of linguistic
expression.
(1) Some words
are meaningful, but they identify no entities in
the real world,
such as the words
dragon, phoenix, unicorn,
and
mermaid.
(2)
It is not possible for some words to find referent
in the world, such as the
words
but, and, of, however, the,
etc.
(3) Speakers of English understand
the meaning of
a round
triangle
although
there is
no such graph.
3.
Sense
is
the
relation
by
which
words
stand
in
human
mind.
It
is
mental
representation, the
association with something in the speaker’s or
hearer’s mind.
The
study
of
meaning
from
the
perspective
of
sense
is
called
the
representational approach.
Ⅲ
.Classification of lexical
meanings
1. Referential
meaning (denotative meaning)
–
central meaning of words,
stable,
universal
2.
Associative meaning
–
meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less
stable,
more culture-specific
(1)
Connotative
meaning
–
the
communicative
value
an
expression
has
by
virtue
of
what
it
refers
to,
embraces
the
properties
of
the
referent,
peripheral
(2)
Social
meaning
(stylistic
meaning)
–
what
is
conveyed
about
the
social
circumstances of the use of a
linguistic expression
(3) Affective
meaning
–
what is
communicated of the feeling or attitude of the
speaker/writer towards what is referred
to
(4)
Reflected
meaning
–
what
is
communicated
through
association
with
another sense of the same expression
?
Taboos
(5) Collocative meaning
–
the associated meaning a
word acquires in line with
the meaning
of words which tend to co-occur with it
Ⅳ
.Lexical sense
relations
1. Synonymy
(1) Synonyms are words which have
different forms but similar meanings.
?
Dialectal
synonyms
–
lift/elevator,
flat/apartment
?
Synonyms of different styles
–
gentleman/guy
?
Synonyms of
different registers
–
salt/sodium chloride
·
14
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