-
第
3
章
句子
(
须校
)
Sentences
Syntax: A
minimalist
Introduction
(
Andrew
Radford
)
17
简介
18
基本术语
(Basic
terminology)
参
2-9
词汇语类(
Lexical
categories
或≠
Word
classes
)
名词:世上具体事
物的种类,有不同形式,前有冠词,作主语、补语,主语和补语是动词的
论元:一个命题
中提到的东西
动词:指行为,有不同形式,
形容词
:人或事物具备的性质,通常修饰名词,有比较级和最高级形式
副词:主要修饰动词
介词:用来联系时空中的事物、人、事件。
名词、动词、形容词常有派生形态。
NVAADVP
功能语类(
Functional
categories
)
名词、动词、形容词、副词、介词是实词(
content
words
)
限定词:冠词(
the/a
)和指示词(
demojstra
tives:thisthat
)
助动词:
auxilliary
verbs
不等于词汇动词(
lexical
verbs
)
代词
< br>PRN(pronoun)
:
连词:并列连词(
co-ordinating
conjunctions
)
andbut or
从属连词
thatiffor
,称为标补语(
p>
complementisers
)
DAUXPRNCONJC
-----------------------------
John smokes
…
serve the function of being
the
subject
(predicate
…
) of the clause
John smokes cigars
Complement
..two
arguments(i.e. the two entities involved in the
act of smoking) of the predicate
smokes
subjects typically carry
nominative case, whereas complements typically
carry objective case
He/*Him smokes
cigars
John smokes them/*they
He smokes/*smoke cigars
John smokes cigars/a cigar
把
主语与补语区分开,看是否在动词谓语前、是否带主宾格,是否与动词一致
The president smokes a
cigar
after dinner
The president smokes a cigar
in his office
An
expression which serves to provide (optional)
additional information about the time or place
(or
manner
, or
purpose
, etc.) is said to
serve as an
adjunct
(
附加语;附接语
)
Cigars
, the
president never smokes
them
in front of his wife
topic
comment
Cigars,
the president never smokes in front of his wife
Cigars serves both functions
is the topic of the overall
clause as well as being the complement of
the verb
smokes
.
Complex sentences
Mary knows John smokes
Main
clause
complement clause
The functions of clauses
Declarative
Interrogative
Imperative
Exclamative
19
句子结构
(Sentence
structure)
最简方案的操作
句法运作
(syntactic operation)
两个方式:合并
mergermerge
与移
位
movementmove
合并
(merger)
merge
合并
最简方案术语,指用已构建的单位
构建较大单位的操作。具体说,
“合并”是
将读数集
(numeration
词库中的词项集合
)
p>
中的词汇成分与部分树结合的过程。与移位一起
,
< br>合并是树构建过程中的一个基本操作。
按叉分支原则合并。
任意一词组结构
(
一个较大语类?
)XP
中,
最重要的成分是中心语
(
head
,<
/p>
X
0
,
X-ze
ro
)
,它与其补语
(complem
ent)
合并
(merge)
,得到<
/p>
X-
阶标(
X
?
)
,
X
?
p>
是中心语和补语
两叉分支的节点:
X
?
X
Complement
head
X
?
再和指示语(
specifier<
/p>
)合并得到
XP
,它是
< br>
X
?
和指示语两叉分支的节点
,亦即
X
的最大
投射结构(
maximal projection
)
XP
Specifier
X
?
X
Complement
head
X
?
是
中介结构
(可以反复出现)
,研究
表明它揭示了自然语言的反复性特征(递归性
recursiveness
)
。但它并不改变词组结构最多只有一个中心语、一个指示和一个补语的事实
。
(理论意义是承认中间范畴,起数目多少、概括力如何尚在讨论中)
< br>
What is the government
planning to do ?
Reduce
taxes
是中心语
reduce
的一个投射(
projection
)
。
VP
V
NP
Reduce
taxes
What is the
government
?
s principle
objective?
To reduce taxes.
IP
╱
╲
I
VP
╱
╲
V
NP
to
reduce
taxes
IP
是非限定性词组(<
/p>
infinitive phrase
)
I
是
infinitive
particle
What will the government do?
Try to reduce taxes.
VP
╱
╲
V
IP
╱
╲
I
VP
╱
╲
V
NP
try
to
reduce
taxes
What will the government do?
*Will try to reduce taxes
( incomplete
phrase)
They will try to reduce taxes.
IP
╱
╲
PRN
?
╱
╲
I
VP
╱
╲
IP
╱
╲
I
VP
╱
╲
V
NP
they
will
try
to
reduce
taxes
to
、
will/would
、<
/p>
shall/should
、
can/c
ould
、
may/might
等相像
,它们属于何种语类?统称
Inflection
,
译为
“屈折语类”
。
“
曲折成分”
简写为
INFL
或
I
。
Will
??是不
完全的短语
(I-bar:
incomplete
inflection phrase
,
而
IP
是个
complete inflection ph
rase)
,
助动词需要有主语,
此处
与指示语合并才能组建一个完整的
IP
(现在称屈折短语)
。
/
顺便说明
p>
x
的理论意义,一方面
短语结构语法规则受
更多的制约,另一方面须承认更多的短语范畴(沈词典
390
)
。
N
╱
╲
Det
N
╱
╲
形容词短语
N
╱
╲
程度副词
形容词
the
very
fast
car
—
_
V
=
Constraints on merger:
features and checking
合并限制:特征与核查
IP
╱
╲
PRN
I
?
╱
╲
VP
╱
╲
V
N
He
has
seen
them
*him
*seeing
*they
has
要求指示语
/
主语具有特定
的人称、数、格的特征。第三人称、单数、主格。补语必需是
-n
form
的动词。
*He has seen they.*
He has seen.
中心语
see
又要求补语是宾格并且不能没有
补语(
I see. I
can
?
t see.
是另外的情况)
。
“
John has seen M
ary.
”
,可以,虽然表面上看不出格
的特征。
结论:句法的结构是词项(
lexical items
)的投射
(projection)
,它必须
满足其所包含的词的特
性。这种特性可以据一些语法特征来描写:①中心语特征(
head features
)
,决定它们可
能占
据的中心词位置的种类,标志它们的内在性质;②指示语特征(
specifier
features
)
:决定它
们允许和不允许的指示语的范围;③补语特征(
complement features
)
:决定能或不能
带补语
的范围。
成分测试(
tests for constituency<
/p>
)
(
略
)
co-ordination test
求证
constituent structure
Run
up the hill
and
up the mountain
.
*Ring
up his mother
and
up his
sister
.
20
空语类
(Empty categories)
空屈折成分(
Empty
INFL
)
目前上述所见到的都是显
形
(overt)
语类,
但也有隐性的
语类成分。
隐性:
covert
、
p>
null
、
empty
。
引入零概念
(
zero
)
或空成分
(nul
l)
目的是在某种分析中保持均衡或对称性,
或是为了作出经<
/p>
济的说明,若引入过多就会削弱分析的合理性。
(
1
)空
INFL
黑人英语:
a.
I
?
m
playin
?
baseball.(
棒球
)
/He/They playin
?
baseball.
IP
╱
╲
PRN
?
(
含助动词的不完全
IP)
╱
╲
I
VP
╱
╲
V
N
a.
I
?
m
playin
?
baseball
b.
We
Φ
playin
?
baseball
b is a
IP headed by a null
variant(
Φ
) of
are.
有理由假设
IP
的
head
是
Φ
(
are
的变体)<
/p>
,即可解释为什么
We
是主格,为什么
补语是
-ing
形式,因为这是
Φ
p>
(
are
)的指示语特征、补语特征的必然
要求。
为什么说
Φ
< br>是个隐
INFL
(空语类)呢?
证明:
He is trying,
I know he is/*must/*did.
You can do it,
I know you can/*are/*have.
黑人英语例
He gonna(going to)be
there,I know he is.
后个助动词是前助动词的拷贝。
再如:
IP
╱
╲
PRN
He
He
用附加疑问句证明:
He must
be
mad, mustn?t
he?
He can speak
Swahili,
can?t
he?
They might suspect
him, mightn
?
t they?
He could
plead(
认罪
) quality,
couldn
?
t he?
He
enjoyed syntax, didn
?
t he?
尽管标准英语不允许上面
b
中的省略,但有些特殊的结构中助动词可以是空的:
< br>
a. He
was
laughing and she
was
crying
b. He
was
laughing and she
—
crying
IP
╱
╲
PRN
?
╱
╲
I
V
She
Φ
crying
假设此处
Φ
是
was
的一个变体,就可解释这样的事实:主语
为什么是
she
这类词,
was
的指
示语特征应是第三人称单数主格主语,
动
词
crying
为什么是
-ing
p>
形式,
这是
was
对补语特征
的要求。
(
2
)
PRO
:非限定小句中
的空主语
would like[ you to
stay]
would like [to stay]
IP
╱
╲
PRN
?
╱
╲
I
VP
╱
╲
V
IP
╱
╲
PRN
?
╱
╲
I
V
We
would
like
you
to
stay
We
would
like
PRO
to
stay
PRO
受主语
we
的控制。为何提出无主语的限定小句中具
有空的
PRO
主语呢?部分是因为
设<
/p>
PRO
这一位置有自然语义基础,有了它就能抓住相关的直觉。具
有这种隐主语的句子在
?
(
含助动词的
不完全
IP)
╱
╲
I
VP
╱
╲
V
N
didn
?
t
enjoy
syntax
Φ
enjoy
syntax
用另一
句子释义(
paraphrase
)时隐主语就显示出来:
p>
a. The president hopes [to be
re-elected]
president hopes [he will
be re-elected]
还有句法的证据支持这种提法:反身代词通常需要一个
最近的先行词(
antecedent
)
:
a. They
want
[John to help himself]
himself
有本地先行词
b.
*They
want [John to help
themselves]
John would like [to prove
himself]
himself
也要求一本地先行词,为满足此条件,故:
John would like [PRO to prove himself]
himself
这样就坚持了我们提出的句子必须是“主语
+
谓语”的结构。到现在我们可以提出
小句
(
clauses
)是形式为“主语
+INFL+
补语”的
IP
结构
,主语是显性或隐性的代词或名词性
词语,
I
NFL
是由或隐或显的助动词或不定式分词充任。
(
3
)隐补语
you think he will resign?
may.
IP
╱
╲
PRN
?
╱
╲
I
V
He
may
Φ
(
4
)名词短语中的空成分
a. The Italians do like the opera.
b. Italians do love opera.
IP
╱
╲
DP
?
╱
╲
╱
╲
D
N
I
VP
╱
╲
V
DP
╱
╲
D
N
The
Italians
do
love
the
opera
Φ
Italians
do
love
Φ
opera
隐性限定语
(covert determiner)
的假说是有证据的并非出于为了扩大结构对称性的愿望。
如果
英语中确实有这样的
determiner
,我们
希望它具有和显性限定语一样的语义性质(如数量限
定语
all
、
some
)
。
a. Eggs are
fattening(
◎致胖
)
Bacon is fattening
b. I had eggs for breakfast
I had bacon for breakfast
a.
中的
eggs
< br>和
bacon
具有类属(
gen
eric
)解释,可释为“
eggs /bacon in g
eneral
”
,而
b
中的
有部分(
partitive
)的解释,大略可释为“
some eggs/bacon
”
。如果我们说无限定词的名词性