Syntax句法学.

需要借助语转化规则。

Deep structure:

深层结构

：

It is formed by the XP rule in accordance with

the head’s subcategorization properties.

Surface structure (

< br>表层结构

)

：

It corresponds to the final

syntactic

form of

the sentence which results from appropriate transformations.

系统功能语法：

由英国语言学家

M.A.K Halliday

发展 出的一套语法体系。

主要

关注

语言和社 会之间

的关系，

认为语言是一种做事的方式，

< br>研究语言与环境的关

系，重视对个别语言以及个别变体的描述。

< br>

PART II

1.

What is syntax?

“

Syntax

”

is the study of the rules governing the ways in which

words

,

word groups

and

phrase

s are combined to form sentences in a

language, or the study of the interrelationships between

sentential

elements.

is a sentence?

L. Bloomfield defines

“sentence”

as an

independent linguistic form

not

included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it

is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form, it is a structurally

independent linguistic form. It is also called

a maximum free form.

3.

What are syntactic relations?

“Syntactic

relations

” refer to the ways in which

words,

word groups

or

phrase

s form sentences; hence three kinds of syntactic relations:

positional relations

, r

elations of substitutability

and

relations of

co-occurrence

.

“Positional relation”

, or

“word order”,

refers to the sequential

arrangement to words in a language. It is a manifestation of a certain

aspect of what

F. de Saussure

called

“syntagmatic relations

”, or of

what other linguists call

“horizontal relations” or “chain relations”.

“Relations of substitutability”

refer to classes or sets of words

substitutable

for each other grammatically in same sentence structures.

Saussure

called them

“associative relations

”. Other people call them

“paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations”.

By

“relations of co

-occurrence

”,

one means that words of

different sets

of

clauses may permit or require the occurrence of a word of another

set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus

relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and

partly to paradigmatic relations.

4

.What is IC analysis? What are immediate constituents(and ultimate

constituents)?

“IC analysis”

is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence

into two(or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply

dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing

what they really are . What remain of the first cut are called

“immediate

constituents”

, and what are left at the final cut are called “ultimate

constituents”. For example, “John left yesterday” can be thus

segmented: “John| left | | yesterday”. We get two immediate

constituents for the first cut (|), and they are “John” and “left

yesterday”. Further split(||) this sentence generates three “ultimate

constituents”: “John”, “left ” and

“yesterday”.

are

endocentric

and

exocentric constructions

?

“Endocentric construction”

is one whose distribution is

functionally

equivalent to

that of one or more of its constituents, i. e., a

word

or a

group of word

s, which serves as a definable

“centre” or “head”. Usually

noun phrases

,

verb phrase

s and

adjective phrases

belong to

endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to

the head.

“Exocentric construction”

, opposite of endocentric

construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where

none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole that

is to say ,there is no definable centre or head inside the group.

Exocentric construction usually includes

basic sentence

,

prepositional

phrase,

predicate(

verb+object

) construction, and

connective(

be+complement

) construction.

is a

subject?

A

predicate

? An

object?

In some language, an

“subject”

refers to one of the nouns in the

nominative

case, such as “pater” in the following example: “pater filiu

m

amat” (put literally in English: the father the son loves). In English, a

“grammatical subject” refers to a noun which can establish

correspondence with the verb and which can be checked by a

tag-

question test, e.g., “He is a good cook(, isn’t he?).”

A

“predicate

” refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a

binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the

subject are considered together

. e.g., in the sentence “The monkey is

jumping ”, “is jumping ” is the predicate.

Traditionally

“object”

refers to

the receiver or goal of an action

, and it is

further classified into two kinds:

direct object

and

indirect object.

In

some inflecting languages, an object is marked by case labels: the

“accusative case” for direct object, and the “dative case ” for direct

object, and the “dative case” for indirect to word order(after the verb

and preposition) and by inflections(of pronouns). E .g., in the sentence

“John kissed me”, “me” is the object.

Modern linguists suggest that an

object refers to such an item that it can become a subject in passive

transformation.

7.

What is category?

The term

“category”

in some approaches refers to

classes and functions

in its narrow sense

, e.g.,

noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase,

verb phrase

, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of

these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include

number, gender, case and countability and of the verb, for example,

tense, aspect, voice, etc.

8.

What is number? What is gender? What is case?

“Number” is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word

classes displaying such contrasts as

singular, dual, plural,

etc. In English,

number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms:

singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of

pronouns and verbs.

“

Gender

” displays such contrasts as

“masculine”, “feminine”, “neuter”,

or “animate” and “inanimate”, etc.

, for the analysis of word classes.

When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities, we natural

gender(the opposite is grammatical gender).

“Case”

identifies the

syntactic relationship

between words in a

sentence. In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the

morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms

“

accusative”

,

“

nominative

”,

“dative

”, etc. In English, the case category is realized in

three ways: by

following a preposition

and by

word order.

is

concord

? What is

government

?

“Concord

” may be defined as requirement that the forms of two or

more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic

relationship with one another shall be characterized by

the same

paradigmatically

marked category or categories, e.g., “man runs”,

“men run”.

“Government”

requires that one word of a particular class in

a given syntactic class shall exhibit the form of a specific category. In

English, government applies only to pronouns among the variable

words ,that is , prepositions and verbs govern particular forms of the

paradigms of pronouns according to their syntactic relation with them,

e.g. ,

“I helped him; he helped me.”

10.

What is a phrase? What is a clause?

A

“phrase”

is

a single element

of structure containing more than one

word, and

lacking

the subject-

predicate structure typical of “clauses”.

Traditionally, it is seen as part of a structural hierachy, falling between a

clause and word, e.g., “the three tallest girls” (nominal phrase). There is

now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and

phrases. A “word group” is an extensi

on of a word of a particular class

by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.

Thus we have nominal group, verbal group, adverbial group,

conjunction group and preposition group.

A

“clause

” is group of words

with its own subject and predicate

included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, in a sentence.