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Chapter 3
Morphology
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Lexicon
is the collection of
all the words of a language. It is synonymous with
“
vocabulary
”
.
Words
are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the
emphasis of this chapter falls upon words, i.e.,
the analysis
and creation of words.
Linguists define
the
word
as the smallest
free form found in language. The features of word
Word is meaningful; word is a
grammatical unit; word can be used independently;
word is relatively stable and
uninterruptible.
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Morphology
refers to the study of the internal structure of
words and the rules by which words are formed.
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The
total number of words stored in the brain is
called the lexicon.
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Words are the
smallest free units of language that unite sounds
with meaning.
Morphology
is
a
branch
of
linguistics,
whereas
lexicon
is
a
component
of
language
instead
of
a
branch
of
linguistics.
Open class word and closed class word
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Open
class
words----content
words
of
a
language
to
which
we
can
regularly
add
new
words,
such
as
nouns,
adjectives, verbs and adverbs,
e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat
Generation), hacker, email, internet,
“
做秀，时装
秀
…” in
Chinese.
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Closed class words----
grammatical or functional words, such as
conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.
Morpheme
--the minimal unit
of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of
language is called a morpheme.
---Words are composed of
morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or
more morphemes, e.g.
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1-morpheme
boy, desire
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2-morpheme
boy+ish, desir(e)+ble
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3-morpheme
boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity
?
4-morpheme
gentle+man+li+ness,
un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity
?
5-morpheme
un+gentle+man+li+ness
?
7-morpheme
anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism
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Morph:
when people wish to
distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the
entire morpheme, they may sued
the
term.
It is the phonetic
realization of a morpheme
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Allomorph:
A
morpheme
may
be
represented
by
different
forms,
called
allomorphs.
It
is
the
phonetic
variant of a
morpheme.
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Some morphemes have a
single form in all contexts, such as “dog, bark,
cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be
some
variation,
that
is,
a
morpheme
may
have
alternate
shapes
or
phonetic
forms.
They
are
said
to
be
the
allomorphs of the
morpheme, the plural morpheme may be represented
by:
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map----maps
[s]
?
dog----dogs
[z]
?
watch----watches
[iz]
?
mouse----mice
[ai]
?
ox----oxen
[n]
?
tooth----teeth
?
sheep----sheep
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Each of the
underlined part is called an allomorph of plural
morpheme.
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Affix
?
Prefix
---- morphemes that occur only before
others, e.g.
un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.
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Suffix
----
morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.
1
-ful, -er,
-ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.
Root:
The root constitutes
the core of the word and carries the major
component of its meaning. A root is the base
form of a word that cannot further be
analyzed without total loss of identity. A root
may be free or bound (such as
mit,
tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally
bound.
Free morpheme & bound
morpheme
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Free morpheme----
is one that may constitute a word (free form) by
itself, such as
bed, tree, sing, dance,
etc.
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Bound morpheme----is one
that may appear with at least one other morpheme.
They can not stand by themselves,
such
as “
-
s” in “dogs”, “al” in
“national”, “dis
-
” in
“disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.
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Some morphemes constitute words by
themselves. These morphemes are called free
morphemes.
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Other morphemes are never used
independently in speech and writing. They are
always attached to
free morphemes to
form new words. These morphemes are called bound
morphemes.
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The
distinction
between
a
free
morphemes
and
a
bound
morpheme
is
whether
it
can
be
used
independently in speech or writing.
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Free
morphemes
are
the
roots
of
words,
while
bound
morphemes
are
the
affixes
(prefixes
and
suffixes).
Derivational morpheme & inflectional
morphem
e
?
Derivational
morphemes----
the
morphemes
which
change
the
category,
or
grammatical
class
of
words,
e.g.
modern---modernize,
length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.
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Inflectional morphemes----
the morphemes which are for the most part purely
grammatical markers, signifying
such
concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they
never change their syntactic category, never add
any lexical
meaning, e.g.
a)
number:
tables
apples
cars
b)
person, finiteness and aspect:
talk/talks/talking/talked
c) c
ase:
John/John’s
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Inflectional morphemes in
modern English
indicate case
and number of
nouns, tense and aspect
of
verbs, and degree of
adjectives and adverbs.
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Derivational morphemes are bound
morphemes added to existing forms to construct new
words.
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English
affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.
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Some languages
have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted
into other morphemes.
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Derivational
morphemes----
?
affix (suffix,
infix, prefix) + root
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Inflectional morphemes
?
11
11 types of inflectional morphemes in
English
Noun+
-
’s,
-s/es
[possessive;
plural]
Verb+
-s/es,
-ing,
-ed,
-ed/-en
[3
rd
person
singular;
present
participle;
past tense, past participle]
Adj+ -er, -est
[comparative; superlative]
Inflectional morphemes never change the
grammatical category of a word
Inflectional morphemes influence the
whole category;
Derivational morphemes
are opposite
Order
: root (stem) +
derivational + inflectional
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Conclusion: classification of morphemes
2
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Morphemes
?
Free morphemes
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Bound morphemes
?
Inflexional
?
Derivational:
affixes
?
Prefixes
?
Suffixes
Morphological rules
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The rules that govern the
formation of words, e.g. the “un
- +
----
” rule.
unfair
unthinkable unacceptable…
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Compounding is another way
to form new words, e.g.
landlady rainbow
undertake…
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The process of
putting affixes to existing forms to create new
words is called
derivation
.
Words thus formed
are called
derivatives.
Compounds
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Noun compounds
daybreak (N+V)
playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)
callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)
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Verb compounds
brainwash (N+V)
lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)
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Adjective compounds
maneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved)
dutyfree (N+adj.)
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Preposition compounds
into (P+P)
throughout (P+P)
Some points about compounds
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When the two words are in
the same grammatical category, the compound will
be in this category, e.g.
postbox,
landlady, icy-cold,
blue-
black…
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When the two words fall
into different categories, the class of the second
or final word will be the grammatical
category of the compound, e.g.
head-
strong, pickpocket…
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Compounds have different
stress patterns from the non-
compounded
word sequence, e.g. red coat, green
house…
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The
meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the
meanings of its parts.
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Formation of
new words
1.
Inflection:
it
is
the
manifestation
of
grammatical
relationships
through
the
addition
of
inflectional
affixes, such
as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.
2. Derivation
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Derivation
forms a word by adding an affix to a free
morpheme.
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Since
derivation can apply more than once, it is
possible to create a derived word with a number
of
affixes.
For
example,
if
we
add
affixes
to
the
word
friend
,
we
can
form
befriend,
friendly,
unfriendly,
friendliness,
unfriendliness,
etc.
This
process
of
adding
more
than
one
affix
to
a
free
morpheme is termed complex derivation.
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Derivation is
also constrained by phonological factors.
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Some English
suffixes also change the word stress.
3.
Compounding
?
Compounding is
another common way to form words. It is the
combination of free morphemes.
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