-
Chapter 3&4 summary
于梦婷
翻译方向班
2014417791
Chapter 3
Morphology
--one
of
the
scope
of
linguistics
is
instructed
in
chapter
3.
Morphology refers
to the
part of the
grammar
that
is concerned with
word
formation
and word
structure. Different rules apply to classify
words.
First
one
is
part
of
speech(
词性
).
Second
one
is
meaning
expressed.
Third
one
is
different classes.
?
Nouns
V
erbs
?
lexical
words
（
content
words
）
Adjectives
?
open class words
Words can be divided into
Adverbs
Conjunctions
Prepositions
?
grammatical
words
（
functional
words
）
Articles
?
closed class words
Pronouns
Linguists define word as the smallest
free form found in language. A free form is
simply an element that does
not
have to occur
in a
fixed position
with
respect to
its
neighboring
elements
；
in many cases, it
can even appear in isolation. For instance,
The boys left. The plural
marking -s is not a free form.
The most
important
component
（
部分）
of a word structure is the morpheme
（
词
素
,
形态素）
t he
smallest unit of language that carries information
about meaning or
function.
A
morpheme which can be a word by
itself
is
called
free
morpheme.(
自由
词素
)
Free and bound morpheme
Morpheme
Allomorphs
（语素变体）
A
morpheme
that
must
be
attached
to
another
one
is
a
bound
morpheme.
（粘着词素）
The morpheme used to
express indefiniteness
in
English
has
two
forms
：
a
before
a
word
that begins
with a consonant
and an before a
word
that
begins
with
a
vowel.
The
variant
（不同的）
forms of a morpheme are called
its allomorphs.
We
can set out to analyze the internal structure of
words from three aspects.
1
、
free and bound
morphemes
A
morpheme
which can be a
word by
itself
is
called
free
morpheme.(
自由词素
)A
morpheme that must be attached to
another one is a bound
morpheme.
（
粘着词素）
2
、
Root
，
affix and stem
Root
is
the
base
form
of
a
word
that
cannot
further
be
analyzea
without
total loss of identity
.
Stem is the main part of a word to
which affixes are added.
Affix
is
the collective
term
for the
type
of
formative that can
be
used only
when added to
another morpheme.
3
、
Derivational
and infectional morphemes
A
derivational
morpheme
(
派生词素
)refers
to
one
that
creates
an
entirely
new word. It may
take the form of prefix or a suffix. -en -ate
-ic
?
An
inflectional
morpheme
(
屈
折
词
< br>素
)provides
further
grammatical
information
about
an
existing
lexical
item.
English
inflectional
morphemes
are
largely in the form of suffix.
Although there
are lots of rules of
formation
，
we can see it
morphologically since
learning
morphology
.
1
、
inf
lection
（屈折法）
-ing
-ed
It
refers
an
to
the
process
of
adding
-er
affix to a word or
changing it in some
-est
other
way
according
to
the
rules
of
-
‘
s
the grammar of a language.
-s
??
<
/p>
2
、
compounding
（复合构词法）
Compounding
refers to the process of conjoining two
or
more
free
morphemes
to form a new
word. sweet, rianbow
?
3
、
derivation
（派生法）
Derivation
is
an
affixational
process
that
forms
a
word
with
a
meaning
and/or
category distinct form that of its
bases.
4
、
conversi
on
（转化法）
Words
may
shift
from
one
part
of
speech
to
another
without
the
addition
of
affixes. Eg.n
→
v
to tape
?
1
）
cli
pping
（拆分）
An abbreviated word can be
formed by cutting part
of a longer word. e
< br>→
bike
?
2
）
initials and
acronyms
（首字母缩写）
5
、
abbreviation
（缩写法
）
3)blending
（混合）
Initials differ from acronyms in that
whereas initials
are read
letter by
letter
，
acronyms
are pronounced
as independent words.
A blend
is a combination of
parts of words to
form a
third
word
which
contains
some
of
the
meaning
of
each
part.
＋
log→blog
6
、
back
formation
（反成法）
New words may be coined from already
existing words by
“
subtracti
ng
”
an
affix
thought to be part of the old word.
beg
（
derived from
beggar
）?
7
、
neologism
（
co
inage
新语）
New words can be created to define new
objects or ideas.
< br>8
、
borrowing(
借用
法
)
language and
used in another language.
：
e
ducation
?
A
borrowing
word
refers
to
a
word
or
phrase
which
has
been
taken
from
one
Chapter 4
Syntax
，
a branch
of
linguistics that studies the rules
that
govern the
formation of
sentences is introduced in chapter 4.
First
，
sentence types must be
mastered.
?
simple sentence
According to their
structure
?
coordinate sentence
?
complex sentence
SV/SVO/SVC
According to the linear order of
constituents
SV
A/SVOO/SVOC/SVOA
Second
，
there are
various approaches to syntactic studies.
?
the
traditional approach
?
the structural
approach
?
the generative approach
④
the
functional approach
Parts of speech
1
、
the traditional
approach
Function of words categories
Concord and government
（一致性与普通语法）
Agreement
between
words
in
person,
number, gender, and case.
tense and
aspect
（时和体）
Tense
：
A
grammatical form connected with
verbs
，
which often
show time
Aspect
：
A category
of the verb designating primarily the relation
of
the
action
to
the
passage
of
time,
especially
in
reference
to
completion, duration, or repetition.
2
、
the structural
approach
?
syntagmatic and
paradigmatic
relations
（组合关系与聚合关系）
The
syntagmatic
relation
is
a
relation
between
one
item
and
others
in
a
sequence
or
between
elements
which are all present.
The
paradigmatic relation is a relation holding
between elements replaceable with each other at
a particular place in a
structure
，
or between one
element present present and others obsent.
?
endocentric and exocentric
constructions
（向心结构与离心结构）
An endocentric
construction
is one whose
distribution
is
functionally
equivalent to one of
its
constituents which serve as the centre
or head of the whole.
Typtical endocentric constructions are
noun phrase
，
verb
phrase
，
adjective phrase.
subtypes:
subordinate and coordinate
constructions
（主从结构和并列结构）
The
exocentric
construction
is
defined
as
a
construction
whose
distribution
is
functionally
equivalent to any of its constituents.
Typtical exocentric
construction is prepositional phrase.
Immediate constitute
analysis
（直接成分分析法）
3
、
the generative
approach
Category
refers
to
a
group
of
linguistic
items
which
fulfill
the
same
or
similar
functions
in
a
particular
languages.
A
fundamental
fact
about
words
in
all
human
languages
is
that
they
can
be
grouped
together
into
a
relatively
small
number
of
classes
，
called
syntactic
categories
，
which
can
generally
substitute
for
one
another
without loss of
grammaticality
.
1
、
The
most central categories to the
syntactic study are the
word-level
categories. Here
word level categories
are divided into two kinds
：