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第一章
is language?
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal
symbols used for human communication
features of language
①
Arbitr
ariness(
任意性
)refers
to
the
forms
of linguistic
signs bear
no
natural
relationship
to
their meaning. (sounds and meanings)
②
Duality
（
二层性）
:The property of having two levels
of structures, such that units of the primary
level
are
composed
of
elements
of
the
secondary
level
and
each
of
the
two
levels
has
its
own
principles of organization.
③
Productivity/creativity(
创
造
性
）
:Lang
uage
is
productive
in
that
it
makes
possible
the
construction and
interpretation of new signals by its users.
④
Displacement(
移位性
):Human
Languages
enable
their
users
to
symbolize
objects,
events
and
concepts which are not present (in time
and space) at moment of communication. (p7)
3. Functions of language
①
Informative(
信息功能
): to give
information about facts. (ideational)
②
Interpersonal(
人际功能
): to
establish and maintain social status in a
society.(age, sex, language,
background, accent, status)
③
Performative(
施为功能
)
:
language
is
used
to
do
things,
to
perform
certain
actions.
(name,
promise, apologize, sorry, declare)
④
. Emotive/Expressive
(
情感功能
): to express feelings
and attitudes of the speaker.
⑤
Phatic
communion(
寒暄交流
)
:
to
use
small
and
meaningless
expressions
to
establish
a
comfortable relationship or maintain
social contact between people without any factual
content.
(Health, weather)
⑥
Recreational
function(
娱乐
): the use of
language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)
⑦
Metalingual
function(
元语言功能
): to talk
about language itself.
4. What is
linguistics?
Linguistics is generally
defined as the scientific study of language.
5. Important distinctions in
linguistics
Descriptive & prescriptive
Synchronic & diachronic
Langue & parole
Competence &
performance
ptive(
描写
< br>/
述性
)
—
describe and analyze linguistic facts or
the language people actually
use (modern linguistic)
Pres
criptive(
规定性
)
—
lay
down
rules
for
“
correct
and
standard
”
linguistic
behavior
in
using
language (traditional
grammar:
“
never use a double
negative”)
onic study (
共时
)
—
descrip
tion of a language at some point of time (modern
linguistics)
Diachronic
study
(
历时
< br>)
—
description
of
a
language
as
it
changes
through
time
(historical
development of
language over a period of time)
第四章
1
．
What is Syntax
（句法）
?
Syntax
is
the
study
of
the
rules
governing
the
ways different
constituents
are
combined
to
form sentences.
句法就是研究语言的不同成分
组成句子的规则
2
．
Four Approaches
:The traditional
approach
传统语言观
(Parts of
speech
、
Syntactic Function
不考、
Category
范畴、
Concord and government
一致关系和支配关系
)
、
The structural
approach
结构语言观、
The generative
approach
、
The functional
approach
功能语言观
3
．
The traditional
grammar regards sentences as a sequence of words ,
so it pays great attention to
the
study
of words ,
such
as
the
classification
of
words
in
terms
of parts
of
speech ,
the
identification of function of words in
terms of subject, predicate , etc.
4.
Parts of speech
Traditional
grammar
defines
8
parts
of
speech:
nouns,
verbs,
pronouns,
adjectives,
adverbs,
prepositions,
conjunctions and interjections.
5
．
The term
Category
范畴
in some
approaches refers to word classes and functions in
its narrow
sense,
范
畴
这
一
术
语
狭
义
上
是
指
词
类
和
功
能
eg.
Noun,
Verb,
Subject,
Predicate.
More
specifically, it refers
to the defining properties of these general units:
the categories of the
noun
名词的范畴
, include number,
gender, case and countability
（
case
）
;
the
categories of the verb
动词的范畴
:
tense, aspect, voice, etc.
6
．
Number is
mostly a category of the noun and
pronoun
名词和不可数名词
.
Two terms of number in nouns: singular
and plural
单数和复数
Number is also reflected in the
inflections of pronouns and verbs
7.
Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and
pronoun.
In English, the gender
distinctions are on the whole natural, determined
by the biological gender
of the
creature.
8. Case is used in the
analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic
relationship between words
in a sentenc
e.
在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系
In
English,
pronouns
have
three
cases
of
nominative
主格
,
accusative
受格
,
and
genitive
与格
.
Nouns have two of general and
genitive
所有格
In
English, the case of noun is realized in three
channels:(a) inflection(b) following a
preposition(c)
word order
9.
Tense
时态
: the absolute
location of an event or action on time. It is
marked by an inflection of
the verb. As
a result, there are only two tenses recognized
now: past and present.
Since
the
future
time
does
not
involve
any
inflection
of
the
ve
rb,
we
do
not
refer
to
a
“future
tense”, even though
in many different ways we can talk about the
future.
10.
Aspect
体
: It has nothing with
time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing
or completed.
Perfective
（完成体）
and Imperfective
（进行体）
Perfective and Progressive (in English)
11. Voice
语态
:
describe the relationship between verb and subject
Passive
被动语态
and
active
主动语态
12.
Concord and government
①
Concord (
一
致
关
系
) refers
to agreement between
words,
especially
between
a verb and
the subject of a
sentence.
②
Government
(
支配关系
) is a type of
grammatical relationship between two or more
elements in
a sentence.
In
traditional grammar, the term government has
typically been used to refer to the relationship
between verbs and nouns or between
prepositions and nouns.
Structural
Approach
，由
Ferdinand de
Saussure
提出
tic
Relations
：
Positional
relations
位置关系、
Relations of s
ubstitutability
替代关系、
Relation
s of co-occurrence
同现关系
ate constituent
(
直接成分
) is any meaningful
constituent at the first step in an analysis.
endocentric construction
(
向心结构
) is a construction
that contains:
1) a head, which is
the single obligatory element in the construction;
2) one or more optional elements
subordinate to the head.
e
(
主位
) refers to the known
information which is not new to the reader or
listener
Rheme
(
述位
) refers
to
the
information
that
is
new.
The
new
information
is
what
is
to
be
transmitted to the reader
or listener
The linguists of the Prague
school believed that sentence may be analyzed from
the
functional
side
as well as the
grammatical
side.
subject, predicate
(grammatical side)
theme, rheme
(functional side)
第五章
1. What is Semantics?
Semantics is the study of the meaning
of words, phrases and sentences.
语义学是研究单
词、短语
和句子的意义的学科
2
．
Geoffrey
Leech
利奇
Seven types of
meaning7
种意义类型
:
①
Conceptual
meaning
概念意义
②
Connotative
meaning
内涵意义
③
Social
meaning
社会意义
④
Affective meaning
感情意义
Associative
Meaning
联想意义（②——⑥）
⑤
Reflected
meaning
反射意义
⑥
Collocative
meaning
搭配意义
⑦
Thematic
meaning
主位意义
tual
meaning (
概念意义
) i
s
also called
“denotative”
（外延义）
and it is
concerned with
the relationship between
a word and the thing it refers to.
概念意义也
叫外延义，
它关注词语跟它
所指称事物之间的联系
Conceptual meaning is meaning
given in the dictionary.
ative meaning
(
联想意义
) is the total of all
the meanings a person thinks of when they
hear the word
Associative
meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or
implies.
ic meaning
(
主位意义
) is
“
what is communicated by the
way in which the message is
organized
in terms of order and
emphasis.”
它是由词序和词语重音所决定的
6. The Referential
Theory
（指称理论）
：
①
The Referential Theory
②
The Semantic Triangle
③
Sense and Reference
referential theory
指称理论
is the theory of
meaning which relates the meaning of a word to
the thing it refers
to.
指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论
8. The semantic
triangle
语意三角
is the indirect
relation between a word and a thing it refers to
and it is mediated by concept.
语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，
它们是以概念为中
介的
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