-
CACBB, DCDAA,BCD, 124
BDCDC,
BB(
与上一题重复
)DCA, CC B, 123
ACDBD, AABCD, ABD, 135
Vulnerable to
Susceptible to
Artisans in
Sixteenth-Century Europe
For
centuries
European
artisans
had
operated
in
small,
autonomous
handcraft
businesses,
but
by
the
sixteenth
century
an
evolving
economic
system
—
moving
toward
modern
capitalism,
with
its
free-market
pricing,
new
organization
of
production, investments, and so
on
—
had started to erode
their stable and relatively
prosperous
position. What forces contributed to the decline
of the artisan?
In a few
industries there appeared technological
innovations that cost more to install
and operate than
artisans
—
even associations
of artisans
—
could afford.
For example,
in
iron
production,
such
specialized
equipment
as
blast
furnaces,
tilt
hammers,
wire-drawing
machines,
and
stamping,
rolling,
and
slitting
mills
became
more
familiar components of the industry.
Thus the need for fixed capital (equipment and
buildings
used
in
production)
soared.
Besides
these
items,
expensive
in
their
own
right, facilities for water, storage,
and deliveries were needed. In addition, pig (raw)
iron turned out by blast furnaces could
not be forged until refined further in a new
intermediate stage. In late sixteenth-
century Antwerp, where a skilled worker earned
125 to 250 guilders a year, a large
blast furnace alone cost 3,000 guilders, and other
industrial equipment was equally or
more expensive.
Raw
materials, not equipment, const
ituted
artisans’ major expense in most traders,
however. Whereas in 1583 an Antwerp
silk weaver paid 12 guilders for a loom (and
made small payments over many years to
pay off the debt for purchasing the loom),
every
six
weeks
he
or
she
had
to
lay
out
24
guilders
for
the
2
pounds
of
raw
silk
required
to
make
a
piece
of
cloth.
Thus
access
to
cheap
and
plentiful
primary
materials
was
a
constant
preoccupation
for
independent
producers.
Using
local
materials might allow even the poorest
among them to avoid reliance on merchant
suppliers.
The
loss
of
nearby
sources
could
therefore
be
devastating.
As
silk
cultivation waned
around the Spanish cities of Cordoba and Toledo,
weavers in these
cities
were
forced
to
become
employees
of
merchants
who
put
out
raw
silk
from
Valencia
and
Murcia
provinces.
In
the
Dutch
Republic,
merchants
who
imported
unprocessed salt from France, Portugal,
and Spain gained control of the salt-refining
industry once exploitation of local
salt marshes was halted for fear that dikes (which
held back the sea from the low-lying
Dutch land) would be undermined.
Credit was necessary for production but
created additional vulnerabilities for artisans.
Prices
for
industrial
products
lagged
behind
those
of
raw
materials
and
foodstuffs,
and this,
coupled with rising taxes, made it difficult for
many producers to repay their
creditors.
Periodic
downturns,
when
food
prices
shot
up
and
demand
for
manufactures
fell
off,
drove
them
further
into
debt
or
even
into
bankruptcy,
from
which
they
might
emerge
only
by
agreeing
to
sell
their
products
exclusively
to
merchants
or
fellow
artisans
who
extended
them
loans.
Frequent
enough
during
periods of growth, such credit crises
became deeper and lasted longer after about
1570, as did war-related disruptions of
raw-material supplies and markets.
Artisans’
autonomy
was
imperiled,
too,
by
restrictions
on
their
access
to
markets.
During
the
sixteenth
century,
a
situation
like
this
often
resulted
from
the
concentration
of
export
trade
in
a
few
great
storage
and
distribution
centers.
The
disappearance of
regional markets where weavers in Flanders (what
is now northern
Belgium) had previously
bought flax and sold linen left them at the mercy
of big-city
middlemen,
who
quickly
turned
them
into
domestic
workers.
In
a
similar
fashion,
formerly
independent producers in southern Wiltshire in
England, who had bought
yarn
from
spinners
or
local
brokers
and
sold
their
cloth
to
merchants
in
nearby
Salisbury,
became
subject
to
London
merchants
who
monopolized
both
wool
supplies and woolens exports.
With
good
reason,
finally,
urban
artisans
feared
the
growth
of
industries
in
the
countryside.
For
one
thing,
they
worried
that
the
spread
of
village
crafts
would
reduce their supply of
raw materials, driving up prices. City producers
also knew that
rural
locations
enjoyed
lower
living
costs,
wages,
and
taxes,
and
often
employed
fewer or simplified
processes. These advantages became a major
preoccupation as
competition
intensified in the 1570s and 1580s
Paragraph 1
For
centuries
European
artisans
had
operated
in
small,
autonomous
handcraft
businesses,
but
by
the
sixteenth
century
an
evolving
economic
system
—
moving
toward
modern
capitalism,
with
its
free-market
pricing,
new
organization
of
production, investments, and so
on
—
had started to erode
their stable and relatively
prosperous
position. What forces contributed to the decline
of the artisan?
1.
Which
of
the
sentences
below
best
expresses
the
essential
information
in
the
highlighted
sentence
in
the
passage?
Incorrect
choices
change
the
meaning
in
important ways or leave out essential
information.
C
(
句子主干
)
?
In
the
sixteenth
century,
the
European
economy
moved
toward
a
system
of
free-
market pricing, new ways of production, and
investments.
?
Before
the
sixteenth
century,
European
makers
of
handcrafts
enjoyed
stability,
autonomy, and relative prosperity.
?
By the
sixteenth century, the rise of capitalism began to
weaken the autonomy
and relative
prosperity of European artisans.
?
European
artisans
operated
small,
autonomous
businesses
before
modern
capitalism emerged in
the sixteenth century.
Paragraph 2
In a few
industries there appeared technological
innovations that cost more to install
and operate than
artisans
—
even associations
of artisans
—
could afford.
For example,
in
iron
production,
such
specialized
equipment
as
blast
furnaces,
tilt
hammers,
wire-drawing
machines,
and
stamping,
rolling,
and
slitting
mills
became
more
familiar components of the industry.
Thus the need for fixed capital (equipment and
buildings
used
in
production)
soared.
Besides
these
items,
expensive
in
their
own
right, facilities for water, storage,
and deliveries were needed. In addition, pig (raw)
iron turned out by blast furnaces could
not be forged until refined further in a new
intermediate stage. In late sixteenth-
century Antwerp, where a skilled worker earned
125 to 250 guilders a year, a large
blast furnace alone cost 3,000 guilders, and other
industrial equipment was equally or
more expensive.
2.
The
word “
Besides
” in
the passage is closet in meaning to
A
?
In
addition to
?
More important than
?
Different from
?
Together with
3.
According
to
paragraph
2,
how
did
technological
advances
contribute
to
the
economic
decline of artisans?
?
Artisans had no place to store or use
the new machines.
?
Goods produced by the new technology
were cheaper than those produced by
artisans.
?
The fixed costs of remaining in
business became very high.
?
Artisans did not know how to use the
new machines.
Paragraph 3
Raw materials, not equipment,
constituted artisans’ major expense in most
traders,
however. Whereas in 1583 an
Antwerp silk weaver paid 12 guilders for a loom
(and
made small payments over many
years to pay off the debt for purchasing the
loom),
every
six
weeks
he
or
she
had
to
lay
out
24
guilders
for
the
2
pounds
of
raw
silk
required
to
make
a
piece
of
cloth.
Thus
access
to
cheap
and
plentiful
primary
materials
was
a
constant
preoccupation
for
independent
producers.
Using
local
materials might allow
even the poorest among them to avoid reliance on
merchant
suppliers.
The
loss
of
nearby
sources
could
therefore
be
devastating.
As
silk
cultivation waned
around the Spanish cities of Cordoba and Toledo,
weavers in these
cities
were
forced
to
become
employees
of
merchants
who
put
out
raw
silk
from
Valencia
and
Murcia
provinces.
In
the
Dutch
Republic,
merchants
who
imported
unprocessed salt from France, Portugal,
and Spain gained control of the salt-refining
industry once exploitation of local
salt marshes was halted for fear that dikes (which
held back the sea from the low-lying
Dutch land) would be undermined.
4.
The
word
“
preoccupation
” in the
passage is closet in meaning to
?
necessity
?
concern
?
struggle
?
uncertainty
5.
In
paragraph 3, why does the author provide the
information about an Antwerp
silk
weaver’s costs in 1583?
?
To describe
some typical costs in the silk-weaving industry
?
To
support
the
statement
that
artisans’
main
expense
was
materials,
not
equipment
?
To
argue
against
the
view
that
artisans
did
not
have
to
borrow
money
to
buy
equipment
?
To show that materials were cheap and
plentiful for most artisans
6.
What can be
inferred from paragraph 3 about local materials?
?
They were of
higher quality than imported materials.
?
They were
usually more plentiful than imported materials.
?
They remained
available even after merchants began to control
the industries.
?
They tended to be more affordable than
materials supplied by merchants.
7.
According
to
paragraph
3,
which
of
the
following
was
sometimes
an
effect
on
artisans of the loss of local sources
of their primary materials?
?
They had to
sell their products to merchants.
?
They needed to
take loans in order to buy the materials from
merchants.
?
They
could no longer afford to be independent
producers.
?
They
imported the materials from distant sources.
Paragraph 4
Credit was necessary for production but
created additional vulnerabilities for artisans.
Prices
for
industrial
products
lagged
behind
those
of
raw
materials
and
foodstuffs,
and this,
coupled with rising taxes, made it difficult for
many producers to repay their
creditors.
Periodic
downturns,
when
food
prices
shot
up
and
demand
for
manufactures
fell
off,
drove
them
further
into
debt
or
even
into
bankruptcy,
from
which
they
might
emerge
only
by
agreeing
to
sell
their
products
exclusively
to
merchants
or
fellow
artisans
who
extended
them
loans.
Frequent
enough
during
periods of growth, such credit crises
became deeper and lasted longer after about
1570, as did war-related disruptions of
raw-material supplies and markets.
8.
The
phrase
“
coupled with
” in the
passage is closet in meaning to
?
caused by
?
compared with
?
affected by
?
combined with
9.
According
to
paragraph
4,
all
of
the
following
caused
economic
difficulties
for
artisans EXCEPT
?
decreasing availability of credit
?
decreased
demand for manufactured goods
?
increased taxes
?
problems caused
by wars
Paragraph 5
Artisans’
autonomy
was
imperiled,
too,
by
restrictions
on
their
access
to
markets.
During
the
sixteenth
century,
a
situation
like
this
often
resulted
from
the
concentration
of
export
trade
in
a
few
great
storage
and
distribution
centers.
The
disappearance of
regional markets where weavers in Flanders (what
is now northern
Belgium) had previously
bought flax and sold linen left them at the mercy
of big-city
middlemen,
who
quickly
turned
them
into
domestic
workers.
In
a
similar
fashion,
formerly
independent producers in southern Wiltshire in
England, who had bought
yarn
from
spinners
or
local
brokers
and
sold
their
cloth
to
merchants
in
nearby
Salisbury,
became
subject
to
London
merchants
who
monopolized
both
wool
supplies and woolens exports.
10.
The
word
“
autonomy
” in the
passag
e is closet in meaning to
?
independence
?
influence
?
ability to make
a living
?
ability to adapt
11.
Paragraph 5
supports which of the following statements about
artisans during the
sixteenth century?
?
They had
difficulty transporting their goods to the best
markets.
?
They
were at a disadvantage because the concentration
of supplies and exports
was in the
hands of big-city merchants.
?
They received
higher wages as employees of big-city merchants.
?
They were able
to obtain raw materials from local merchants.
Paragraph 6
With
good
reason,
finally,
urban
artisans
feared
the
growth
of
industries
in
the
countryside.
For
one
thing,
they
worried
that
the
spread
of
village
crafts
would
reduce their supply of raw materials,
driving up prices. City producers also knew that
rural
locations
enjoyed
lower
living
costs,
wages,
and
taxes,
and
often
employed
fewer or simplified
processes. These advantages became a major
preoccupation as
competition
intensified in the 1570s and 1580s
12.
All of the
following are identified in paragraph 6 as
concerns that urban artisans
had about
the growth of industry in the countryside EXCEPT
?
a decrease in
the supply of raw materials
?
a cheaper cost
of living in the countryside
?
a more
manageable level of competition
?
less complex
production processes in the countryside
Paragraph 3
Raw
materials, not equipment, constituted artisans’
major expense in most traders,
however.
■
Whereas
in
1583
an
Antwerp
silk
weaver
paid
12
guilders
for
a
loom
(and made
small payments over many years to pay off the debt
for purchasing the
loom), every six
weeks he or she had to lay out 24 guilders for the
2 pounds of raw
silk required to make a
piece of cloth.
■
Thus access
to cheap and plentiful primary
materials
was
a
constant
preoccupation
for
independent
producers.
■
Using
local
materials might allow
even the poorest among them to avoid reliance on
merchant
suppliers.
■
The
loss
of
nearby
sources
could
therefore
be
devastating.
As
silk
cultivation waned around the Spanish
cities of Cordoba and Toledo, weavers in these
cities
were
forced
to
become
employees
of
merchants
who
put
out
raw
silk
from
Valencia
and
Murcia
provinces.
In
the
Dutch
Republic,
merchants
who
imported
unprocessed salt from France, Portugal,
and Spain gained control of the salt-refining
industry once exploitation of local
salt marshes was halted for fear that dikes (which
held back the sea from the low-lying
Dutch land) would be undermined.
13.
Look at the
four squares [
■
] that
indicate where the following sentence can be
added to the passage.
This
was
possible
because
when
transportation
costs
were
low,
the
price
of
raw
materials was generally also low.
Where would the sentence best fit?
Click on a square [
■
] to add
the sentence to the
passage.
14.
Directions:
An
introductory
sentence
for
a
brief
summary
of
the
passage
is
provided below. Complete the summary by
selecting the THREE answer choices
that
express the most important ideas in the passage.
Some answer choices do
not belong in
the summary because they express ideas that are
not presented in
the passage or are
minor ideas in the passage.
This
question is worth 2 points.
Drag your choices to the spaces where
they belong. To review the passage, click on
View Text
.
European artisans experienced a decline
during the sixteenth century as result of a
number of developments.
●
●
●
Answer choices
Artisans
’
ability
to
earn
profits
was
Advances
in
technology
in
some
restricted
by
their
dependence
on
industries
increased
the
cost
of
the
creditors, to whom they
were forced to
equipment, buildings,
and facilities that
sell
their
goods,
and
by
competition
artisans
needed
for
producing
and
from rural areas.
selling
their goods.
As
industries came under the control of
Iron production in the sixteenth
century
merchants, artisans lost access
to cheap
depended
on
new
inventions
such
as
raw
materials,
and
they
had
to
borrow
blast
furnaces,
tilt
hammers,
money
to
buy
the
materials
they
wire-drawing
machines,
and
stamping,
needed from
merchant suppliers.
rolling, and
silting mills.
In the new industrial system from which
The
rising
prices
of
food
and
other
skilled
artisans
were
progressively
necessities
often
left
artisans
without
excluded,
the
quality
of
manufactured
enough
money
to
pay
their
taxes
and
items gradually declined.
other business expenses.
Disease and History
What is the relationship between
disease and the evolution of human societies?
Epidemiology
is
the
study
of
the
causes,
distribution,
and
control
of
diseases
in
populations. Throughout history, there
have been general trends in the relationship
between
diseases
and
the
human
species.
Anthropologist
George
Armelogos
has
outlined these trends
and refers to them as three “epidemiological
transitions.”
For most of our species’
hist
ory, we lived in small, widely
dispersed, nomadic groups.
Our
ancestors certainly experienced diseases of
various sorts and would have come
into
contact with new diseases as they migrated to new
environments. But infectious
disease
may
not
have
had
serious
effects
on
large
numbers
of
people
or
many
different
populations, since diseases would have had little
chance of being passed on
to many other
humans.
When
some
people began
to
settle
down
and
produce
their
food
through
farming
and
animal
domest
ication
—
starting
about
10,000
years
ago
—
the
first
epidemiological
transition
occurred. Infectious
diseases increased in impact, as larger
and denser concentrations of people
provided greater opportunity for disease to be
passed
from
host
to
host.
Animal
domestication
may
have
brought
people
into
contact
with
new
diseases
previously
limited
to
other
species.
Working
the
soil
would
have exposed farmers to insects and other
pathogens. Irrigation in some areas
provided
breeding
places
for
mosquitoes,
increasing
the
incidence
of
malaria
and
other
mosquito-borne
diseases.
Sanitation
problems
caused
by
larger,
more
sedentary
populations
would
have
helped
transmit
diseases
in
human
waste,
as
would
the
use
of
animal
dung
for
fertilizer.
In
addition,
agriculture
also
led
to
a
narrowing of food sources,
as compared to the varied diets of hunters and
gatherers.
This
could
have
resulted
in
nutritional
deficiencies;
moreover,
the
storage
of
food
surpluses
attracted
new
disease
carriers
such
as
insects
and
rats.
Trade
between
settled
communities
helped
spread
diseases
over
large
geographic
areas,
as
in
the
case of the Black Death
in Europe. Epidemics, in the sense of diseases
that affect a
large number of
populations at the same time, were essentially
nonexistent until the
development of
agricultural economies.
Beginning
in
the
last
years
of
the
nineteenth
century
and
continuing
into
the
twentieth,
we
experienced
the
second
epidemiological
transition
.
With
modern
medical
science
providing
immunizations
and
antibiotics
and
with
better
public
health
measures
and
improved
nutrition,
many
infectious
diseases
were
brought
under control, or
even eliminated. In terms of what ailed and killed
us, there was a
shift
to
chronic
diseases
such
as
heart
and
lung
diseases.
The
increase
in
many
of
these
came
not
only
from
the
fact
that
fewer
people
were
dying
from
infectious
disease
and
were
living
longer
but
also
from
the
results
of
modern
lifestyles
in
developed countries and among the upper
classes of developing
countries
—
a more
sedentary life leading to less physical
activity, more stress, environmental pollution,
and high-fat diets. But at least, we
thought, many of these problems were things we
could potentially control; all those
infectious epidemics were of the past.
But
on
the
heels
of
the
second
transition
had
come
the
third
epidemiological
transition
,
and
we
are
in
it
now.
New
diseases
are
emerging,
and
old
ones
are
returning.
Both
of
these
phenomena
can
be
understood
in
terms
of
evolutionary
theory.
The return of old diseases
is the result of the fact that microorganisms are
evolving
species
themselves.
For
example,
new
and
serious
antibiotic-resistant
strains
of
tuberculosis have
recently
appeared. This
evolution may have
been
encouraged by
what some
authorities consider our overuse of antibiotics,
giving microorganisms a
greater
chance
to
evolve
resistance
by
exposing
them
to
a
constant
barrage
of
selective
challenges.
Some
bacteria
reproduce
hourly,
and
so
the
processes
of
genetic mutation and natural selection
are speeded up in these species.
Emerging diseases are also the result
of human activity in the modern world, which
brings more people into contact with
more diseases, some of which were unheard of
even a few decades ago. As people and
their products became more mobile, and as
our
populations
spread
into
previously
little-inhabited
areas,
cutting
down
forests
and
otherwise altering ecological conditions, we
contact other species that may carry
diseases to which they are immune but
that prove deadly to us.
Paragraph 2
For most of our
species’ history, we lived in
small,
widely dispersed, nomadic groups.
Our
ancestors certainly experienced diseases of
various sorts and would have come
into
contact with new diseases as they migrated to new
environments. But infectious
disease
may
not
have
had
serious
effects
on
large
numbers
of
people
or
many
different
populations, since diseases would have had little
chance of being passed on
to many other
humans.
15.
The
word
“
dispersed
” in the passage
is closet in meaning to
?
active
?
scattered
?
varied
?
linked
16.
According to paragraph 2, why were
infectious diseases not a serious problem for
most of human history?
?
There were very
few infectious diseases early in human history.
?
Population
groups did not move around enough to be exposed to
new diseases.
?
Many disease-causing organisms had
features that made them difficult to pass
on to other humans.
?
Population
groups
did
not
have
enough
contact
with
each
other
to
spread
diseases widely.
Paragraph 3
When
some
people began
to
settle
down
and
produce
their
food
through
farming
and
animal
domest
ication
—
starting
about
10,000
years
ago
—
the
first
epidemiological
transition
occurred. Infectious
diseases increased in impact, as larger
and denser concentrations of people
provided greater opportunity for disease to be
passed
from
host
to
host.
Animal
domestication
may
have
brought
people
into
contact
with
new
diseases
previously
limited
to
other
species.
Working
the
soil
would
have exposed farmers to insects and other
pathogens. Irrigation in some areas
provided
breeding
places
for
mosquitoes,
increasing
the
incidence
of
malaria
and
other
mosquito-borne
diseases.
Sanitation
problems
caused
by
larger,
more
sedentary
populations
would
have
helped
transmit
diseases
in
human
waste,
as
would
the
use
of
animal
dung
for
fertilizer.
In
addition,
agriculture
also
led
to
a
narrowing of food sources,
as compared to the varied diets of hunters and
gatherers.
This
could
have
resulted
in
nutritional
deficiencies;
moreover,
the
storage
of
food
surpluses
attracted
new
disease
carriers
such
as
insects
and
rats.
Trade
between
settled
communities
helped
spread
diseases
over
large
geographic
areas,
as
in
the
case of the Black Death
in Europe. Epidemics, in the sense of diseases
that affect a
large number of
populations at the same time, were essentially
nonexistent until the
development of
agricultural economies.
17.
The
word
“
deficiencies
” in the
passage is closet in meaning to
?
complications
?
illnesses
?
shortages
?
irregularities
18.
According
to
paragraph
3,
which
of
the
following
contributed
to
the
use
of
epidemics?
?
The development
of more deadly forms of human disease
?
The spread of
ineffective treatments for infectious disease
?
The spread of
mosquito-borne diseases to other disease carriers
?
The
practice of exchanging goods between settled areas
19.
Which
of
the
following
is
NOT
mentioned
in
paragraph
3
as
a
reason
that
agriculture led to greater exposure to
disease?
?
Irrigation created areas where disease-
carrying mosquitoes could reproduce.
?
People
increasingly came into contact with disease-
carrying animals attracted to
food
storage areas.
?
Agricultural products spoiled more
readily, leading to more frequent episodes of
disease.
?
Farming exposed humans to disease-
carrying insects in the soil.
20.
According to
paragraph 3, how did sanitation problems in early
farming societies
lead to the spread of
infectious diseases?
?
Water used for irrigation crops was not
always clean.
?
Larger populations were increasingly
exposed to human and animal waste.
?
Farm products
that spoiled in fields attracted insects and
animals with diseases.
?
Lack
of
varied
food
sources
occasionally
forced
communities
to
eat
food
that
carried diseases.
21.
According to
paragraph 3, how did sanitation problems in early
farming societies
lead to the spread of
infectious diseases? (
重复了
)
?
Water used for
irrigation crops was not always clean.
?
Larger
populations were increasingly exposed to human and
animal waste.
?
Farm products that spoiled in fields
attracted insects and animals with diseases.
?
Lack
of
varied
food
sources
occasionally
forced
communities
to
eat
food
that
carried diseases.
Paragraph 4
Beginning
in
the
last
years
of
the
nineteenth
century
and
continuing
into
the
twentieth,
we
experienced
the
second
epidemiological
transition
.
With
modern
medical
science
providing
immunizations
and
antibiotics
and
with
better
public
health
measures
and
improved
nutrition,
many
infectious
diseases
were
brought
under control, or
even eliminated. In terms of what ailed and killed
us, there was a
shift
to
chronic
diseases
such
as
heart
and
lung
diseases.
The
increase
in
many
of
these
came
not
only
from
the
fact
that
fewer
people
were
dying
from
infectious
disease
and
were
living
longer
but
also
from
the
results
of
modern
lifestyles
in
developed countries and among the upper
classes of developing
countries
—
a more
sedentary life leading to less physical
activity, more stress, environmental pollution,
and high-fat diets. But at least, we
thought, many of these problems were things we
could potentially control; all those
infectious epidemics were of the past.
22.
According
to
paragraph
4,
which
of
the
following
best
describes
the
second
epidemiological
transition?
?
Modern medicine made it possible for
people to live longer even if they had an
infectious disease.
?
Infectious
diseases were harder to cure due to factors like
stress and pollution.
?
New infectious diseases appeared as
quickly as modern medical science was able
to control old ones.
?
Chronic
diseases
replaced
infectious
diseases
as
the
major
cause
of
human
sickness and death.
23.
According to
paragraph 4, all of the following likely
contributed to chronic disease
EXXCEPT
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
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